Forewarning of Static Liquefaction Landslides
This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYThis article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYPublication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 9
Abstract
Static liquefaction failure and the ensuing flow slide of slopes have produced significant damages to structures and even loss of lives. Based on a very large number (1,632) of laboratory shear tests on cohesionless soils and mine tailings, a triggering excess pore-water pressure ratio () is introduced in this study above which static liquefaction failure could occur. The effects of variations in the direction and relative magnitudes of principal stresses associated with different modes of shear, ground slope, and boundary conditions are incorporated for predicting . The findings compare favorably with pore-water pressures measured just prior to the onset of failure in a field case study and several flow-slide flume experiments. The triggering pore pressure ratio suggested in this study can be employed as a more tangible criterion for detecting liquefaction triggering and landslide warning in instrumented slopes of cohesionless soils and mine waste tailings.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code generated or used during the study are available from the corresponding author by request. These include and data from triaxial compression, hollow cylindrical torsional shear, triaxial extension, plane-strain compression, and direct simple shear tests summarized in Table S1 –S6 .
References
Alarcon-Guzman, A., G. A. Leonards, and J. L. Chameau. 1988. “Undrained monotonic and cyclic strength of sands.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (10): 1089–1109. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:10(1089).
Aleotti, P. 2004. “A warning system for rainfall-induced shallow failures.” Eng. Geol. 73 (3–4): 247–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.01.007.
Al Tarhouni, M. A., and M. Amer. 2008. “Liquefaction and post-liquefaction behaviour of gold mine tailings under simple shear loading.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton Univ.
Al-Tarhouni, M., P. Simms, and S. Sivathayalan. 2011. “Cyclic behaviour of reconstituted and desiccated-rewet thickened gold tailings in simple shear.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (7): 1044–1060. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-022.
Anderson, S. A., and N. Sitar. 1995. “Analysis of rainfall-induced debris flows.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (7): 544–552. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:7(544).
Ayoubian, A. 1996. “Triaxial testing on very loose sands for flow liquefaction analyses.” Master of Science thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Alberta.
Been, K., and M. G. Jefferies. 1985. “A state parameter for sands.” Géotechnique 35 (2): 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1985.35.2.99.
Been, K., M. G. Jefferies, and J. Hachey. 1991. “The critical state of sands.” Géotechnique 41 (3): 365–381. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1991.41.3.365.
Bishop, A. W. 1971. “Shear strength parameters for undisturbed and remoulded soil specimens.” In Stress-Strain Behaviour of Soils: Proc., Roscoe Memorial Symp., 3–58. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Bishop, A. W. 1973. “The stability of tips and spoil heaps.” Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 6 (3–4): 335–376. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1973.006.03.15.
Brand, E. W. 1981. “Some thoughts on rain-induced slope failures.” In Proc., 10th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 373–376. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Briaud, J. L., and L. M. Tucker. 1988. “Measured and predicted axial response of 98 piles.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (9): 984–1001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:9(984).
Carrera, A., M. R. Coop, and R. Lancellotta. 2011. “Influence of grading on the mechanical behavior of Stava tailings.” Géotechnique 61 (11): 935–946. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.9.P.009.
Castro, G. 1969. “Liquefaction of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Div. of Engineering and Applied Physics, Harvard Univ.
Chen, H. W. 1984. “Stress-strain and volume change characteristics of tailings materials.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Univ. of Arizona.
Chen, H. W., and D. J. A. van Zyl. 1988. “Shear strength and volume-change behavior of copper tailings under saturated conditions.” In Hydraulic fill structures, edited by D. J. A. Van Zyl and S. G. Vick, 430–451. New York: ASCE.
Cherif Taiba, A., Y. Mahmoudi, M. Belkhatir, A. Kadri, and T. Schanz. 2018. “Experimental characterization of the undrained instability and steady state of silty sand soils under monotonic loading conditions.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 12 (5): 513–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2017.1302643.
Cherubini, C., and T. L. L. Orr. 2000. “A rational procedure for comparing measured and calculated values in geotechnics.” In Proc., Int. Symp. on Coastal Geotechnical Engineering in Practice, edited by I. S. Yokohama, A. Nakase, and T. Tsuchida, 261–265. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Chiaro, G., J. Koseki, and T. Sato. 2012. “Effects of initial static shear on liquefaction and large deformation properties of loose saturated Toyoura sand in undrained cyclic torsional shear tests.” Soils Found. 52 (3): 498–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.05.008.
Chillarige, A. V. 1995. “Liquefaction and seabed instability in the Fraser River delta.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Alberta.
Chu, J. 1995. “An experimental examination of the critical state and other similar concepts for granular soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 32 (6): 1065–1075. https://doi.org/10.1139/t95-104.
Chu, J., W. K. Leong, W. L. Loke, and D. Wanatowski. 2012. “Instability of loose sand under drained conditions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 138 (2): 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000574.
Chu, J., S. Leroueil, and W. K. Leong. 2003. “Unstable behavior of sand and its implication for slope stability.” Can. Geotech. J. 40 (5): 873–885. https://doi.org/10.1139/t03-039.
Chu, J., and D. Wanatowski. 2009. “Effect of loading mode on strain softening and instability behavior of sand in plane-strain tests.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirion. Eng. 135 (1): 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:1(108).
Chu, J., and D. Wanatowski. 2014. “Difficulties in the determination of post-liquefaction strength for sand.” Geotech. Lett. 4 (1): 57–61. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.13.00076.
Chu, J., D. Wanatowski, W. L. Loke, and W. K. Leong. 2015. “Pre-failure instability of sand under dilatancy rate controlled conditions.” Soils Found. 55 (2): 414–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.02.015.
Chung, E. K. F. 1985. “Effects of stress path and prestrain history on the undrained monotonic and cyclic loading behaviour of saturated sand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia.
Cooper, M. R., E. N. Bromhead, D. J. Petley, and D. I. Grant. 1998. “The Selborne cutting stability experiment.” Géotechnique 48 (1): 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1998.48.1.83.
Corrêa, M. M., and W. L. O. Filho. 2019. “Impact of methods used to reconstitute tailings specimens on the liquefaction potential assessment of tailings dams.” REM-Int. Eng. J. 72 (3): 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1590/0370-44672018720164.
Cunning, C. C. 1994. “Shear wave velocity measurement of cohesionless soils for evaluation of in-situ state.” Master’s thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Alberta.
Cunning, J. C., P. K. Robertson, and D. C. Sego. 1995. “Shear wave velocity to evaluate in-situ state of cohesionless soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 32 (5): 848–858. https://doi.org/10.1139/t95-081.
Daouadji, A., H. AlGali, F. Darve, and A. Zeghloul. 2010. “Instability of granular materials: Experimental evidence of diffuse mode of failure for loose sands.” J. Eng. Mech. 136 (5): 575–588. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000101.
Davies, M., E. McRoberts, and T. Martin. 2002. “Static liquefaction of tailings: Fundamentals and case histories.” In Proc., Tailings Dams 2002. Lexington, KY: Association of State Dam Safety Officials.
Davis, A. P., S. J. Poulos, and G. Castro. 1988. “Strengths backfigured from liquefaction case histories.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, 1693–1701. St. Louis: Missouri Univ. of Science and Technology.
Dawson, R. F., N. R. Morgenstern, and A. W. Stokes. 1998. “Liquefaction flowslides in Rocky Mountain coal mine waste dumps.” Can. Geotech. J. 35 (2): 328–343. https://doi.org/10.1139/t98-009.
de Gregorio, V. B. 1990. “Loading systems, sample preparation, and liquefaction.” J. Geotech. Eng. 116 (5): 805–821. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1990)116:5(805).
Della, N., A. Arab, and M. Belkhatir. 2011a. “Influence of specimen-reconstituting method on the undrained response of loose granular soil under static loading.” Acta Mech. Sin. 27 (5): 796–802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-011-0462-8.
Della, N., A. Arab, and M. Belkhatir. 2011b. “Static liquefaction of sandy soil: An experimental investigation into the effects of saturation and initial state.” Acta Mech. 218 (1–2): 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-010-0410-x.
Della, N., M. Belkhatir, A. Arab, J. Canou, and J. C. Dupla. 2014. “Effect of fabric method on instability behavior of granular material.” Acta Mech. 225 (7): 2043–2057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-013-1083-z.
Della, N., R. D. Muhammed, J. Canou, and J. C. Dupla. 2016. “Influence of initial conditions on liquefaction resistance of sandy soil from Chlef region in northern Algeria.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 34 (6): 1971–1983. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-016-0077-8.
Dennis, N. D. 1988. “Influence of specimen preparation techniques and testing procedures on undrained steady state shear strength.” In Advanced triaxial testing of soil and rock, ASTM STP 977, edited by R. T. Donaghe, R. C. Chaney, and M. L. Silver, 642–654. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Di Prisco, C., R. Matiotti, and R. Nova. 1995. “Theoretical investigation of the undrained stability of shallow submerged slopes.” Géotechnique 45 (3): 479–496. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1995.45.3.479.
Doanh, T., E. Ibraim, and R. Matiotti. 1997. “Undrained instability of very loose Hostun sand in triaxial compression and extension. 1: Experimental observations.” Mech. Cohesive-Frictional Mater. 2 (1): 47–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1484(199701)2:1%3C47::AID-CFM26%3E3.0.CO;2-9.
Dong, Q., C. Xu, Y. Cai, H. Juang, J. Wang, Z. Yang, and C. Gu. 2016. “Drained instability in loose granular material.” Int. J. Geomech. 16 (2): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000524.
Durham, G. N., and F. C. Townsend. 1973. “Effect of relative density on the liquefaction susceptibility of a fine sand under controlled-stress loading.” In Evaluation of relative density and its role in geotechnical projects involving cohesionless soils, ASTM STP 523, 319–331. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Eckersley, J. 1990. “Instrumented laboratory flowslides.” Géotechnique 40 (3): 489–502. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.489.
Falsafizadeh, S. R., and A. Lashkari. 2018. “Liquefaction of Firoozkuh sand under volumetric-shear coupled strain paths.” In Proc., China-Europe Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering, edited by W. Wu and H.-S. Yu, 496–500. New York: Springer.
Finge, Z., T. Doanh, and P. Dubujet. 2006. “Undrained anisotropy of Hostun RF loose sand: New experimental investigations.” Can. Geotech. J. 43 (11): 1195–1212. https://doi.org/10.1139/t06-068.
Fourie, A. B., and L. Tshabalala. 2005. “Initiation of static liquefaction and the role of K0 consolidation.” Can. Geotech. J. 42 (3): 892–906. https://doi.org/10.1139/t05-026.
Gajo, A., and L. Piffer. 1999. “The effects of preloading history on the undrained behaviour of saturated loose sand.” Soils Found. 39 (6): 43–53. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.39.6_43.
Gajo, A., and D. M. Wood. 1999. “Severn-Trent sand: A kinematic-hardening constitutive model: The q-p formulation.” Géotechnique 49 (5): 595–614. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1999.49.5.595.
Gananathan, N. 2002. “Partially drained response of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia.
Gassman, S. L. 1994. “Undrained steady state shear strength and instabilities of fine sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern Univ.
Georgiannou, V. N. 1988. “Behaviour of clayey sands under monotonic and cyclic loading.” Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine.
Georgiannou, V. N. 2008. “Unstable behaviour of model Jamuna micaceous sand.” Géotechnique 58 (10): 825–829. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2008.58.10.825.
Giasi, C. I., C. Cherubini, and F. Paccapelo. 2003. “Evaluation of compression index of remolded clays by means of Atterberg limits.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 62 (4): 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-003-0196-3.
Hamade, M. M. P., and C. A. Bareither. 2018. “Consolidated undrained shear behavior of synthetic waste rock and synthetic tailings mixtures.” Geotech. Test. J. 45 (5): 1207–1232. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20180007.
Han, C., and I. Vardoulakis. 1991. “Plane strain compression experiments on water-saturated fine-grained sand.” Géotechnique 41 (1): 49–78. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1991.41.1.49.
Harris, W. W. 1994. “Localization of loose granular soils and its effect on undrained steady state strength.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern Univ.
Hazout, L., Z. Zitouni, M. Belkhatir, and T. Schanz. 2017. “Evaluation of static liquefaction characteristics of saturated loose sand through the mean grain size and extreme grain sizes.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 35 (5): 2079–2105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0230-z.
Hight, D. W., V. N. Georgiannou, P. L. Martin, and A. K. Mundegar. 1999. “Flow slides in micaceous sands.” In Problematic soils, edited by E. Yanagisawa, N. Moroto, and T. Mitachi, 945–958. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema.
Highter, W. H., and R. F. Tobin. 1980. “Flow slides and the undrained brittleness index of some mine tailings.” Eng. Geol. 16 (1–2): 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(80)90008-3.
Highter, W. H., and R. P. Vallee. 1980. “The liquefaction of different mine tailings under stress controlled loading.” Eng. Geol. 16 (1–2): 147–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(80)90014-9.
Hird, C. C., and F. A. K. Hassona. 1990. “Some factors affecting the liquefaction and flow of saturated sands in laboratory tests.” Eng. Geol. 28 (1–2): 149–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(90)90039-4.
Huang, A.-B., J.-T. Lee, Y.-T. Ho, Y. F. Chiu, and S.-Y. Cheng. 2012. “Stability monitoring of rain-fall induced deep landslides through pore pressure profile measurements.” Soils Found. 52 (4): 737–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.07.013.
Hussain, M., and A. Sachan. 2019. “Effect of inter-granular void ratio on volume compressibility and undrained shear response of base-sand and natural silty-sand of Kutch.” In Proc., IS-Glasgow 2019, E3S Web of Conf., 1–6. Les Ulis Cedex, France: EDP Sciences.
Hyodo, M., H. Tanimizu, N. Yasufuku, and H. Murata. 1994. “Undrained cyclic and monotonic triaxial behaviour of saturated loose sand.” Soils Found. 34 (1): 19–32. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.34.19.
Ishihara, K. 1993. “Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes.” Géotechnique 43 (3): 351–451. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1993.43.3.351.
Ishihara, K. 2008. “Flow slides of underwater sand deposits in Jamuna River bed.” In Geotechnical Engineering for Disaster Mitigation and Rehabilitation: Proc., 2nd Int. Conf., 3–34. Berlin: Springer.
Iverson, R. M., M. E. Reid, and R. G. LaHusen. 1997. “Debris-flow mobilization from landslides.” Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 25: 85–138. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.85.
Jan, C.-D., and M.-H. Lee. 2004. “A debris-flow rainfall-based warning model.” J. Chin. Soil Water Conserv. 35 (3): 275–285.
Jefferies, M., and K. Been. 2015. Soil liquefaction: A critical state approach. London: CRC Press.
Johnson, K. A., and N. Sitar. 1990. “Hydrologic conditions leading to debris-flow initiation.” Can. Geotech. J. 27 (6): 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1139/t90-092.
Jones, S. 2017. “Liquefaction ausceptibility analysis of Fraser River sand in miniature cone penetration tests and cyclic direct simple shear tests.” MESc thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Western Ontario.
Kato, S., K. Ishihara, and I. Towhata. 2001. “Undrained shear characteristics of saturated sand under anisotropic consolidation.” Soils Found. 41 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.41.1.
Keaton, J. R., J. Wartman, S. A. Anderson, J. Benoît, J. de La Chapelle, R. Gilbert, and D. R. Montgomery. 2014. “The 22 March 2014 Oso Landslide, Snohomish County, Washington.” In Turning disaster into knowledge, 172. Alexandria, VA: National Science Foundation.
Keefer, D. K., R. C. Wilson, R. K. Mark, E. E. Brabb, W. M. Brown III, and S. D. Elle. 1987. “Real-time landslide warning during heavy rainfall.” Science 238 (4829): 921–925. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.238.4829.921.
Keyhani, R., and S. M. Haeri. 2013. “Evaluation of the effect of anisotropic consolidation and principle stress rotation on undrained behavior of silty sands.” Sci. Iranica A 20 (6): 1637–1653.
Khoa, H. D. V., I. O. Georgopoulos, F. Darve, and F. Laouafa. 2006. “Diffuse failure in geomaterials: Experiments and modelling.” Comput. Geotech. 33 (1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2006.01.002.
Konrad, J. M. 1993. “Undrained response of loosely compacted sands during monotonic and cyclic compression tests.” Géotechnique 43 (1): 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1993.43.1.69.
Konrad, J. M., and N. Pouliot. 1997. “Ultimate state of reconstituted and intact samples of deltaic sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 34 (5): 737–748. https://doi.org/10.1139/T97-039.
Koppejan, A. W., B. M. Wamelen, and L. J. H. Weinberg. 1948. “Coastal flow slides in the Dutch province of Zeeland.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 89–96. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Kramer, S. L., and B. H. Seed. 1988. “Initiation of static liquefaction under static loading conditions.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (4): 412–430. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:4(412).
Krim, A., A. Arab, M. Chemam, A. Brahim, M. Sadek, and I. Shahrour. 2019. “Experimental study on the liquefaction resistance of sand–clay mixtures: Effect of clay content and grading characteristics.” Mar. Georesour. Geotechnol. 37 (2): 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2017.1407974.
Krim, A., Z. Zitouni, A. Arab, and B. Mostéfa. 2013. “Identification of the behavior of sandy soil to static liquefaction and microtomography.” Arabian J. Geosci. 6 (7): 2211–2224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0534-5.
Kuerbis, R. 1989. “The effect of gradation and fines content on the undrained loading response of sand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia.
Kuwano, J., H. Iimura, K. Takahara, and H. Nakazawa. 1995. “Undrained cyclic and monotonic shear behaviour of sand-kaolin mixture.” In Proc., IS-Tokyo ’95, 1st Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, edited by K. Ishihara, 165–170. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema.
Lade, P. V. 1992. “Static instability and liquefaction of loose fine sandy slopes.” J. Geotech. Eng. 118 (1): 51–71. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1992)118:1(51).
Lade, P. V. 1993. “Initiation of static instability in the submarine Nerlerk berm.” Can. Geotech. J. 30 (6): 895–904. https://doi.org/10.1139/t93-088.
Lade, P. V., and J. A. Yamamuro. 1997. “Effects of nonplastic fines on static liquefaction of sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 34 (6): 918–928. https://doi.org/10.1139/t97-052.
Lade, P. V., J. A. Yamamuro, and P. A. Bopp. 2006. “Drained and undrained strengths of sand in axisymmetric tests at high pressures.” In Proc., 2nd Japan-US Workshop on Testing, Modeling, and Simulation in Geomechanics, 87–102. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Lade, P. V., J. A. Yamamuro, and C. D. Liggio. 2009. “Effects of fines content on void ratio, compressibility, and static liquefaction of silty sand.” Geomech. Eng. 1 (1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2009.1.1.001.
Laouafa, F., and F. Darve. 2002. “Modelling of slope failure by a material instability mechanism.” Comput. Geotech. 29 (4): 301–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-352X(01)00030-1.
Lashkari, A., S. R. Falsafizadeh, P. T. Shourijeh, and M. J. Alipour. 2020. “Instability of loose sand in constant volume direct simple shear tests in relation to particle shape.” Acta Geotech. 15 (3): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-019-00909-4.
Lavigne, T. A. 1988. “The effects of anisotropic consolidation on the liquefaction potential of mine tailings.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson Univ.
Leboeuf, D. 2019. “Behaviour of a loose silty sand under static and cyclic loading conditions.” In Proc., IS-Glasgow 2019, 1–6. Glasgow, Scotland: EDP Sciences.
Lee, K. L. 1965. “Triaxial compressive strength of saturated sand under seismic loading conditions.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California.
Leong, W. K., and J. Chu. 2002. “Effect of undrained creep on instability behaviour of loose sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 39 (6): 1399–1405. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-076.
Leroueil, S. 2001. “Natural slopes and cuts: Movement and failure mechanisms.” Géotechnique 51 (3): 197–243. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2001.51.3.197.
Li, W., M. R. Coop, K. Senetakis, and F. Schnaid. 2018. “The mechanics of a silt-sized gold tailing.” Eng. Geol. 241 (Jul): 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.05.014.
Lindenberg, J., and H. L. Koning. 1981. “Critical density of sand.” Géotechnique 31 (2): 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1981.31.2.231.
Liu, W., W. Chen, Q. Wang, J. Wang, and G. Lin. 2020. “Effect of pre-dynamic loading on static liquefaction of undisturbed loess.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 130 (Mar): 105915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105915.
Lo, S. R., M. M. Rahman, and D. C. Bobei. 2008. “Limited flow behaviour of sand with fines under monotonic and cyclic loading.” In Proc., Geotechnical Engineering for Disaster Mitigation and Rehabilitation, edited by A. Liu, A. Deng, and J. Chu, 201–209. Berlin: Springer.
Loke, W. L. 2004. “Failure mechanisms of gentle granular soil slopes.” Ph.D. thesis, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological Univ.
Lourenco, S. D. N., K. Sassa, and H. Fukuoka. 2006. “Failure process and hydrologic response of a two layer physical model: Implications for rainfall-induced landslides.” Geomorphology 73 (1–2): 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.06.004.
Manzari, M. T., and Y. F. Dafalias. 1997. “A critical state two-surface plasticity model for sands.” Géotechnique 47 (2): 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1997.47.2.255.
Marachi, N., J. Duncan, C. Chan, and H. Seed. 1981. “Plane-strain testing of sand.” In Laboratory shear strength of soils, ASTM STP 740. Edited by R. N. Yong and F. C. Townsend, 294–302. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Matiotti, R., C. Di Prisco, and R. Nova. 1995. “Experimental observations on static liquefaction of loose sand.” In Proc., IS-Tokyo ’95, 1st Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, edited by K. Ishihara, 817–822. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
McRoberts, E. C., and J. A. Sladen. 1992. “Observations on static and cyclic sand-liquefaction methodologies.” Can. Geotech. J. 29 (4): 650–665. https://doi.org/10.1139/t92-072.
Mesri, G. 2007. “Yield strength and critical strength of liquefiable sands in sloping ground.” Géotechnique 57 (3): 309–311. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.3.309.
Mirbaha, K. 2017. “Cyclic behaviour and liquefaction analysis of a silica-carbonate sand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Western Ontario.
Monkul, M. M., E. Etminan, and A. Şenol. 2016. “Influence of coefficient of uniformity and base sand gradation on static liquefaction of loose sands with silt.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 89 (Oct): 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.08.001.
Montgomery, D. R., K. M. Schmidt, W. E. Dietrich, and J. McKean. 2009. “Instrumental record of debris flow initiation during natural rainfall: Implications for modeling slope stability.” J. Geophys. Res. 114 (F1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JF001078.
Mooney, M. 1996. “An experimental study of strain localization and the mechanical behavior of sand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern Univ.
Morgenstern, N. R., S. G. Vick, C. B. Viotti, and B. D. Watts. 2016. “Report in the immediate causes of the failure of the Fundão Dam: Fundão tailings dam review panel.” Accessed June 6, 2020. https://fundaoinvestigation.com/.
Moriwaki, H., T. Inokuchi, T. Hattanji, K. Sassa, H. Ochiai, and G. Wang. 2004. “Failure processes in a full-scale landslide experiment using a rainfall simulator.” Landslides 1 (4): 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-004-0034-0.
Murthy, T. G., D. Loukidis, J. A. H. Carraro, M. Prezzi, and R. Salgado. 2007. “Undrained monotonic response of clean and silty sands.” Géotechnique 57 (3): 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.3.273.
Naeini, S., and R. Z. Moayed. 2005. “Residual strength and liquefaction potential of reinforced silty sand.” In Proc., 11th Int. Conf. of IACMAG, 143–149. Bologna, Italy: Bologna Pàtron Publisher.
Nakata, Y., M. Hyodo, H. Murata, and N. Yasufuku. 1998. “Flow deformation of sands subjected to principal stress rotation.” Soils Found. 38 (2): 115–128. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.38.2_115.
Okura, Y., H. Kitahara, H. Ochiai, T. Sammori, and A. Kawanami. 2002. “Landslide fluidization process by flume experiments.” Eng. Geol. 66 (1–2): 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00032-7.
Olivares, L., and E. Damiano. 2007. “Postfailure mechanics of landslides: Laboratory investigation of flowslides in pyroclastic soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (1): 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:1(51).
Olson, S. M. 2001. “Liquefaction analysis of level and sloping ground using field case histories and penetration resistance.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Illinois.
Olson, S. M., and T. D. Stark. 2003. “Yield strength ratio and liquefaction analysis of slopes and embankments.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (8): 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:8(727).
Olson, S. M., T. D. Stark, W. H. Walton, and G. Castro. 2000. “1907 static liquefaction flow failure of the north dike of Wachusett Dam.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 126 (12): 1184–1193. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:12(1184).
Omar, T. 2013. “Specimen size effect on shear behavior of loose sand in triaxial testing.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western Univ.
Orr, T. L. L., and C. Cherubini. 2003. “Use of the ranking distance as an index for assessing the accuracy and precision of equations for the bearing capacity of piles and at-rest earth pressure coefficient.” Can. Geotech. J. 40 (6): 1200–1207. https://doi.org/10.1139/t03-063.
Picarelli, L., L. Olivares, S. Lampitiello, R. Darban, and E. Damiano. 2020. “The undrained behaviour of an air-fall volcanic ash.” Geosci. J. 10 (2): 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020060.
Pitman, T. D., P. K. Robertson, and D. C. Sego. 1994. “Influence of fines on the collapse of loose sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (5): 728–739. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-084.
Plewes, H. D., G. D. O’Neil, E. C. McRoberts, and W. K. Chan. 1989. “Liquefaction considerations for Suncor tailings ponds.” In Proc., Dam Safety Seminar, 39–50. Edmonton, Canada: BiTech.
Porcino, D. D., V. Diano, T. Triantafyllidis, and T. Wichtmann. 2020. “Predicting undrained static response of sand with non-plastic fines in terms of equivalent granular state parameter.” Acta Geotech. 15 (4): 867–882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-019-00770-5.
Rabbi, A. T. M. Z., M. M. Rahman, and D. Cameron. 2019. “Critical state study of natural silty sand instability under undrained and constant shear drained path.” Int. J. Geomech. 19 (8): 04019083. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001462.
Rahman, M. M., S. R. Lo, and C. T. Gnanendran. 2008. “On equivalent granular void ratio and steady state behaviour of loose sand with fines.” Can. Geotech. J. 45 (10): 1439–1456. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-064.
Reid, D., R. Fanni, K. Koh, and I. Orea. 2018. “Characterisation of a subaqueously deposited silt iron ore tailings.” Geotech. Lett. 8 (4): 278–283. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.18.00105.
Reid, D., A. Fourie, and S. Moggach. 2019. “Characterization of a gold tailings with hypersaline pore fluid.” Can. Geotech. J. 57 (4): 482–496. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2018-0579.
Riemer, M. F. 1992. “The effects of testing conditions on the constitutive behavior of loose, saturated sand under monotonic loading.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California.
Riemer, M. F., and R. B. Seed. 1997. “Factors affecting apparent position of the steady-state line.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirion. Eng. 123 (3): 281–288. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:3(281).
Riveros, G. A. 2019. “Static liquefaction and liquefaction triggering of gold tailings.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Western Ontario.
Saada, A., and F. C. Townsend. 1981. “State of the art: Laboratory strength testing of soils.” In Laboratory shear strength of soils, ASTM STP 740, edited by R. N. Yong and F. C. Townsend, 7–77. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Sabbar, A. S., A. Chegenizadeh, and H. Nikraz. 2017. “Static liquefaction of very loose sand–slag–bentonite mixtures.” Soils Found. 57 (3): 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2017.05.003.
Sadrekarimi, A. 2009. “Development of a new ring shear apparatus for investigating the critical state of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Illinois.
Sadrekarimi, A., and S. M. Olson. 2011. “Yield strength ratios, critical strength ratios, and brittleness of sandy soils from laboratory tests.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (3): 493–510. https://doi.org/10.1139/T10-078.
Sasahara, K., and N. Sakai. 2014. “Development of shear deformation due to the increase of pore pressure in a sandy model slope during rainfall.” Eng. Geol. 170 (Feb): 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.12.005.
Sasitharan, S. 1994. “Collapse behavior of very loose sand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Alberta.
Sasitharan, S., P. K. Robertson, D. C. Sego, and N. R. Morgenstern. 1993. “Collapse behavior of sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 30 (4): 569–577. https://doi.org/10.1139/t93-049.
Sasitharan, S., P. K. Robertson, D. C. Sego, and N. R. Morgenstern. 1994. “State-boundary surface for very loose sand and its practical implications.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (3): 321–334. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-040.
Sassa, K. 1998. “Mechanisms of landslide triggered debris flows.” In Proc., IUFRO Division 8 Conf. Environmental Forest Science, 499–518. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Schnaid, F., J. Bedin, A. J. P. Viana da Fonseca, and L. de Moura Costa Filho. 2013. “Stiffness and strength governing the static liquefaction of tailings.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirion. Eng. 139 (12): 2136–2144. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000924.
Seed, H. B., and K. L. Lee. 1966. “Liquefaction of saturated sands during cyclic loading.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 92 (6): 105–134.
Shahsavari, M. 2012. “Effect of initial shear stress direction and stress history on the undrained behaviour of sands under triaxial loading.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton Univ.
Shibuya, S. 1985. “Undrained behaviour of granular materials under principal stress rotation.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of London.
Sidle, R. C., and D. N. Swanston. 1982. “Analysis of a small debris slide in coastal Alaska.” Can Geotech J 19 (2): 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1139/t82-018.
Sivathayalan, S. 1994. “Static, cyclic and post liquefaction simple shear response of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia.
Sivathayalan, S. 2000. “Fabric, initial state and stress path effects on liquefaction susceptibility of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia.
Sivathayalan, S., and D. Ha. 2011. “Effect of static shear stress on the cyclic resistance of sands in simple shear loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (10): 1471–1484. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-056.
Sivathayalan, S., and Y. P. Vaid. 2002. “Influence of generalized initial state and principal stress rotation on the undrained response of sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 39 (1): 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1139/t01-078.
Skinner, A. E. 1975. “The effect of high pore water pressures on the mechanical behaviour of sediments.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of London.
Skirrow, R. K. 1996. “The effects of fines content on the monotonic triaxial testing of cohesionless soils for evaluation of in-situ state.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Alberta.
Sladen, J. A., R. D. D’Hollander, and J. Krahn. 1985. “The liquefaction of sands, a collapse surface approach.” Can. Geotech. J. 22 (4): 564–578. https://doi.org/10.1139/t85-076.
Sladen, J. A., and G. Handford. 1987. “A potential systematic error in laboratory testing of very loose sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 24 (3): 462–466. https://doi.org/10.1139/t87-058.
Stiber, N. A. 1992. “Undrained steady state strength of fine sands under axisymmetric conditions.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern Univ.
Take, W. A., R. A. Beddoe, R. Davoodi-Bilesavar, and R. Phillips. 2013. “Effect of antecedent groundwater conditions on the triggering of static liquefaction landslides.” Landslides 12 (3): 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-014-0496-7.
Takeshita, S., M. Takeishi, and K. Tamada. 1995. “Static liquefaction of sands and its liquefaction index.” In Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, edited by K. Ishihara, 177–182. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Terzaghi, K., R. B. Peck, and G. Mesri. 1996. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. New York: Wiley.
Tsomokos, A., and V. N. Georgiannou. 2010. “Effect of grain shape and angularity on the undrained response of fine sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 47 (5): 539–551. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-121.
Uthayakumar, M., and Y. P. Vaid. 1998. “Static liquefaction of sands under multiaxial loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 35 (2): 273–283. https://doi.org/10.1139/t98-007.
Vaid, Y. P., and J. C. Chern. 1983. “Effect of static shear on resistance to liquefaction.” Soils Found. 23 (1): 47–60. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.23.47.
Vaid, Y. P., and J. C. Chern. 1985. “Cyclic and monotonic undrained response of saturated sands.” In Advances in the art of testing soils under cyclic conditions, 120–147. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Vaid, Y. P., and S. Sivathayalan. 1996. “Static and cyclic liquefaction potential of Fraser River delta sand in simple shear and triaxial tests.” Can. Geotech. J. 33 (2): 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-007.
Vaid, Y. P., S. Sivathayalan, M. Uthayakumar, and A. Eliadorani. 1995. “Liquefaction potential of reconstituted Syncrude sand.” In Proc., 48th Canadian Geotechnical Conf., 319–330. Vancouver, Canada: BiTech Publishers.
Vaid, Y. P., J. D. Stedman, and S. Sivathayalan. 2001. “Confining stress and static shear effects in cyclic liquefaction.” Can. Geotech. J. 38 (3): 580–591. https://doi.org/10.1139/t00-120.
Vaid, Y. P., and J. Thomas. 1995. “Liquefaction and postliquefaction behavior of sand.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (2): 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:2(163).
Verdonck, P.-J. 2019. “Evaluation of the critical state line of sands to characterize their mechanical behavior under static and cyclic loading.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Ghent Univ.
Verdugo, R. 1992. “Characterization of sandy soil behavior under large deformation.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tokyo.
Wanatowski, D., and J. Chu. 2007. “Static liquefaction of sand in plane strain.” Can. Geotech. J. 44 (3): 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1139/t06-078.
Wanatowski, D., J. Chu, and R. S.-C. Lo. 2008. “Strain-softening behaviour of sand in strain path testing under plane-strain conditions.” Acta Geotech. 3 (2): 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-008-0064-1.
Wang, G. 1999. “An experimental study on the mechanism of fluidized landslide.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Earth Resources Engineering, Kyoto Univ.
Wang, G., and K. Sassa. 2001. “Factors affecting rainfall-induced flowslides in laboratory flume tests.” Géotechnique 51 (7): 587–599. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2001.51.7.587.
Wang, G., and K. Sassa. 2003. “Pore-pressure generation and movement of rainfall-induced landslides: Effects of grain size and fine-particle content.” Eng. Geol. 69 (1–2): 109–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00268-5.
Wang, J. 2005. “The stress-strain and strength characteristics of Portaway sand.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Nottingham.
Westra, S., L. V. Alexander, and F. W. Zwiers. 2013. “Global increasing trends in annual maximum daily precipitation.” J. Clim. 26 (11): 3904–3918.
Wood, F. M., J. A. Yamamuro, and P. V. Lade. 2008. “Effect of depositional method on the undrained response of silty sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 45 (11): 1525–1537. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-079.
Wride, C. E., and P. K. Robertson. 1997a. Phase I and III data review report (Mildred Lake and J-pit sites, Syncrude Canada Ltd.). Edmonton, Canada: Univ. of Alberta.
Wride, C. E., and P. K. Robertson. 1997b. Phase II data review report (Massey and Kidd sites Fraser River delta). Edmonton, Canada: Univ. of Alberta.
Yamamuro, J. A., and P. V. Lade. 1997. “Static liquefaction of very loose sands.” Can. Geotech. J. 34 (6): 905–917. https://doi.org/10.1139/t97-057.
Yamamuro, J. A., and P. V. Lade. 1998. “Steady state concepts and static liquefaction of silty sands.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirion. Eng. 124 (9): 868–877. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:9(868).
Yang, J. 2002. “Non-uniqueness of flow liquefaction line for loose sand.” Géotechnique 52 (10): 757–760. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2002.52.10.757.
Yang, J., and L. M. Wei. 2012. “Collapse of loose sand with the addition of fines: The role of particle shape.” Géotechnique 62 (12): 1111–1125. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.11.P.062.
Yazdi, A. M. 2004. “Post liquefaction behaviour of sands under simple shear and triaxial loading modes.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton Univ.
Yoshimine, M. 1996. “Undrained flow deformation of saturated sand under monotonic loading conditions.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tokyo.
Yoshimine, M., and K. Ishihara. 1998. “Flow potential of sand during liquefaction.” Soils Found. 38 (3): 189–198. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.38.3_189.
Yoshimine, M., K. Ishihara, and W. Vargas. 1998. “Effects of principal stress direction and intermediate principal stress on undrained shear behavior of sand.” Soils Found. 38 (3): 179–188. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.38.3_179.
Yoshimine, M., R. Ozay, A. Sezen, and A. Ansal. 1999. “Undrained plane strain shear tests on saturated sand using a hollow cylinder torsional shear apparatus.” Soils Found. 39 (2): 131–136. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.39.2_131.
Yoshimine, M., P. Robertson, and C. E. Wride. 2001. “Undrained shear strength of clean sands to trigger flow liquefaction: Reply.” Can. Geotech. J. 38 (3): 654–657. https://doi.org/10.1139/t00-114.
Yoshimine, M., P. K. Robertson, and C. E. Wride. 1999. “Undrained shear strength of clean sands to trigger flow liquefaction.” Can. Geotech. J. 36 (5): 891–906. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-047.
Zhang, D. 1996. “A study of the mechanism of loess landslides induced by earthquakes.” J. Nat. Disaster Sci. 18 (1): 27–41.
Zhang, H. 1997. “Steady state behaviour of sands and limitations of the triaxial test.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Ottawa.
Zhang, H. M., and V. K. Garga. 1997. “Quasi-steady state: A real behaviour?” Can. Geotech. J. 34 (5): 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1139/t97-046.
Zhu, J. H., and S. A. Anderson. 1998. “Determination of shear strength of Hawaiian residual soil subjected to rainfall-induced landslides.” Géotechnique 48 (1): 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1998.48.1.73.
Zlatovic, S., and K. Ishihara. 1997. “Normalized behavior of very loose non-plastic soils: Effects of fabric.” Soils Found. 37 (4): 47–56. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.37.4_47.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146 • Issue 9 • September 2020
Copyright
© 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 17, 2019
Accepted: Mar 23, 2020
Published online: Jul 7, 2020
Published in print: Sep 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Dec 7, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.