Three-Dimensional Modeling of Strain-Softening Soil Response for Seismic-Loading Applications
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 7
Abstract
A three-dimensional (3D) incremental plasticity constitutive model is developed for simulating the strain softening behavior of soil materials. The constitutive model extends an existing multiyield surface (MYS) plasticity formulation with a new strain softening logic. Formulation of the model is presented, and calibration is undertaken to match an available data set. Implementing the model into OpenSees, finite element (FE) simulations are conducted to highlight the underlying response mechanisms. Strength and stiffness degradation due to the strain softening mechanism is shown to play a substantial role in terms of accumulated deformation and influence on the resulting ground accelerations. For that purpose, computed results with and without the strain softening effect are compared and discussed. As such, incorporation of strain softening is an important consideration for a wide range of scenarios involving sensitive clays, cemented, over-consolidated, very dense, or frozen soils among others. Overall, the derived insights are of significance for seismic loading in such soil formations.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code generated or used during the study are available from the corresponding author by request.
Acknowledgments
Partial funding for this research was provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF award OISE-1445712).
References
Abuhajar, O., M. H. El Naggar, and T. Newson. 2010. “Review of available methods for evaluation of soil sensitivity for seismic design.” In Proc., 5th Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. Rolla, MO: Missouri Univ. of Science and Technology.
Anagnostopoulos, A. G., N. Kalteziotis, G. K. Tsiambaos, and M. Kavvadas. 1991. “Geotechnical properties of the Corinth Canal marls.” Geotechnical Geol. Eng. 9 (1): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00880981.
Andersson-Sköld, Y., J. K. Torrance, B. Lind, K. Odén, R. L. Stevens, and K. Rankka. 2005. “Quick clay—A case study of chemical perspective in southwest Sweden.” Eng. Geol. 82 (2): 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.09.014.
Bagheri, F., and M. H. El Naggar. 2015. “Effects of installation disturbance on behavior of multi-helix piles in structured clays.” DFI J.-J. Deep Found. Inst. 9 (2): 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1179/1937525515Y.0000000008.
Boulanger, R. W., and I. M. Idriss. 2006. “Liquefaction susceptibility criteria for silts and clays.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (11): 1413–1426. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:11(1413).
Boulanger, R. W., and I. M. Idriss. 2007. “Evaluation of cyclic softening in silts and clays.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (6): 641–652. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:6(641).
Brooks, G. R. 2013. “A massive sensitive clay landslide, Quyon Valley, southwestern Quebec, Canada, and evidence for a paleoearthquake triggering mechanism.” Quat. Res. 80 (3): 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2013.07.008.
Burland, J. B. 1990. “On the compressibility and shear strength of natural clays.” Géotechnique 40 (3): 329–378. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.329.
Burland, J. B., S. Rampello, V. N. Georgiannou, and G. Calabresi. 1996. “A laboratory study of the strength of four stiff clays.” Géotechnique 46 (3): 491–514. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1996.46.3.491.
Carlson, N. N., and K. Miller. 1998. “Design and application of a gradient-weighted moving finite element code I: In one dimension.” SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 19 (3): 728–765. https://doi.org/10.1137/S106482759426955X.
Chan, A. H. C. 1988. “A unified finite element solution to static and dynamic problems in geomechanics.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. College of Swansea.
Chen, W., and T. Qiu. 2014. “Simulation of earthquake-induced slope deformation using SPH method.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 38 (3): 297–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2218.
Conte, E., F. Silvestri, and A. Troncone. 2010. “Stability analysis of slopes in soils with strain-softening behaviour.” Comput. Geotech. 37 (5): 710–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2010.04.010.
Crawford, C. B. 1968. “Quick clays of eastern Canada.” Eng. Geol. 2 (4): 239–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(68)90002-1.
Dafalias, Y. F., M. T. Manzari, and A. G. Papadimitriou. 2006. “SANICLAY: Simple anisotropic clay plasticity model.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 30 (12): 1231–1257. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.524.
Das, B. M. 2019. Advanced soil mechanics. New York: CRC Press.
Demers, D., D. Robitaille, P. Locat, and J. Potvin. 2014. “Inventory of large landslides in sensitive clay in the province of Quebec, Canada: Preliminary analysis.” In Landslides in sensitive clays, 77–89. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Dey, R., B. Hawlader, R. Phillips, and K. Soga. 2015. “Large deformation finite-element modeling of progressive failure leading to spread in sensitive clay slopes.” Géotechnique 65 (8): 657–668. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.P.193.
Dey, R., B. C. Hawlader, R. Phillips, and K. Soga. 2016. “Numerical modelling of submarine landslides with sensitive clay layers.” Géotechnique 66 (6): 454–468. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.15.P.111.
Elgamal, A., J. Lu, and D. Forcellini. 2009. “Mitigation of liquefaction-induced lateral deformation in a sloping stratum: Three-dimensional numerical simulation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 135 (11): 1672–1682. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000137.
Elgamal, A., L. Yan, Z. Yang, and J. P. Conte. 2008. “Three-dimensional seismic response of Humboldt Bay bridge-foundation-ground system.” J. Struct. Eng. 134 (7): 1165–1176. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2008)134:7(1165).
Elgamal, A., Z. Yang, E. Parra, and A. Ragheb. 2003. “Modeling of cyclic mobility in saturated cohesionless soils.” Int. J. Plast. 19 (6): 883–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-6419(02)00010-4.
Elgamal, A. W. 1991. “Shear hysteretic elasto-plastic earthquake response of soil systems.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 20 (4): 371–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290200406.
Fei, W., and Z. J. Yang. 2019. “Modeling unconfined compression behavior of frozen Fairbanks silt considering effects of temperature, strain rate, and dry density.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 158 (Feb): 252–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.09.002.
Ferrari, G. 2012. “Three-dimensional earthquake response of slopes.” M.Sc. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Bologna and Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
Geertsema, M., and J. K. Torrance. 2005. “Quick clay from the Mink Creek landslide near Terrace, British Columbia: Geotechnical properties, mineralogy, and geochemistry.” Can. Geotech. J. 42 (3): 907–918. https://doi.org/10.1139/t05-028.
Gregersen, O. 1981. “The quick clay landslide in Rissa, Norway.” Norway Geotech. Inst. Publ. 135: 106.
Gu, Q., J. P. Conte, A. Elgamal, and Z. Yang. 2009. “Finite element response sensitivity analysis of multiyield-surface J2 plasticity model by direct differentiation method.” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 198 (30–32): 2272–2285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2009.02.030.
Gu, Q., J. P. Conte, Z. Yang, and A. Elgamal. 2011. “Consistent tangent moduli for multi-yield-surface J2 plasticity model.” Comput. Mech. 48 (1): 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00466-011-0576-7.
Gu, Q., Z. Qiu, and S. Huang. 2015. “A modified multi-yield-surface plasticity model: Sequential closest point projection method.” Comput. Geotech. 69 (Sep): 378–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.05.020.
Gylland, A. S., and H. P. Jostad. 2010. “Effect of updated geometry in analyses of progressive failure.” In Proc., 7th European Conf. on Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, edited by T. Benz and S. Nordal, 497–502. London: CRC Press.
Gylland, A. S., H. P. Jostad, and S. Nordal. 2014. “Experimental study of strain localization in sensitive clays.” Acta Geotech. 9 (2): 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-013-0217-8.
Horpibulsuk, S., M. D. Liu, D. S. Liyanapathirana, and J. Suebsuk. 2010. “Behaviour of cemented clay simulated via the theoretical framework of the structured Cam clay model.” Comput. Geotech. 37 (1–2): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2009.06.007.
Horpibulsuk, S., N. Miura, and D. T. Bergado. 2004. “Undrained shear behavior of cement admixed clay at high water content.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (10): 1096–1105. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:10(1096).
Idriss, I. M., R. Dobry, and R. D. Sing. 1978. “Nonlinear behavior of soft clays during cyclic loading.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 104 (GT12): 1427–1447.
Ishibashi, I., M. Kawamura, and S. K. Bhatia. 1985. Effect of initial shearing on cyclic drained and undrained characteristics of sand. Ithaca, NY: School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell Univ.
Ishihara, K. 1996. Soil behavior in earthquake geotechnics. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Islam, N., B. C. Hawlader, C. Wang, and K. Soga. 2019. “Large deformation finite-element modelling of earthquake-induced landslides considering strain-softening behaviour of sensitive clay.” Can. Geotech. J. 56 (7): 1003–1018. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2018-0250.
Jehel, P., P. Léger, and A. Ibrahimbegovic. 2014. “Initial versus tangent stiffness-based Rayleigh damping in inelastic time history seismic analyses.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 43 (3): 467–484. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2357.
Kasama, K., H. Ochiai, and N. Yasufuku. 2000. “On the stress-strain behaviour of lightly cemented clay based on an extended critical state concept.” Soils Found. 40 (5): 37–47. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.40.5_37.
Kavvadas, M., and A. Amorosi. 2000. “A constitutive model for structured soils.” Géotechnique 50 (3): 263–273. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2000.50.3.263.
Kaynia, A. M. 2012. QUIVER-slope–numerical code for one-dimensional seismic response of slopes with strain softening behaviour. Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
Kaynia, A. M., and G. Saygili. 2014. “Predictive models for earthquake response of clay and sensitive clay slopes.” In Perspectives on European earthquake engineering and seismology, 557–584. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Keefer, D. K. 1984. “Landslides caused by earthquakes.” Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 95 (4): 406–421. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95%3C406:LCBE%3E2.0.CO;2.
Kerr, P. F., and I. M. Drew. 1968. “Quick-clay slides in the USA.” Eng. Geol. 2 (4): 215–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(68)90001-X.
Kokusho, T. 2017. “Liquefaction potential evaluations by energy-based method and stress-based method for various ground motions: Supplement.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 95 (Apr): 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.01.033.
Kokusho, T., and Y. Mimori. 2015. “Liquefaction potential evaluations by energy-based method and stress-based method for various ground motions.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 75 (Aug): 130–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2015.04.002.
Kourkoulis, R., I. Anastasopoulos, F. Gelagoti, and G. Gazetas. 2010. “Interaction of foundation−structure systems with seismically precarious slopes: Numerical analysis with strain softening constitutive model.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 30 (12): 1430–1445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2010.05.001.
Kovacevic, N., D. W. Hight, and D. Pott. 2007. “Predicting the stand-up time of temporary London Clay slopes at Terminal 5, Heathrow Airport.” Géotechnique 57 (1): 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.1.63.
Kvalstad, T. J., F. Nadim, A. M. Kaynia, K. H. Mokkelbost, and P. Bryn. 2005. “Soil conditions and slope stability in the Ormen Lange area.” Mar. Pet. Geol. 22 (1–2): 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.021.
Lai, Y., L. Jin, and X. Chang. 2009. “Yield criterion and elastoplastic damage constitutive model for frozen sandy soil.” Int. J. Plast. 25 (6): 1177–1205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2008.06.010.
Law, H. K., and I. P. Lam. 2001. “Application of periodic boundary for large pile group.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 127 (10): 889–892. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:10(889).
Lee, K., D. Chan, and K. Lam. 2004. “Constitutive model for cement treated clay in a critical state frame work.” Soils Found. 44 (3): 69–77. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.44.3_69.
Lee, K. L., and H. B. Seed. 1967. “Drained strength characteristics of sands.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 93 (6): 117–141.
Lefebvre, G., D. Leboeuf, P. Hornych, and L. Tanguay. 1992. “Slope failures associated with the 1988 Saguenay earthquake, Quebec, Canada.” Can. Geotech. J. 29 (1): 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1139/t92-013.
L’Heureux, J. S. 2012. “A study of the retrogressive behaviour and mobility of Norwegian quick clay landslides.” In Landslide and engineered slopes: Protecting society through improved understanding, 981–988. London: Taylor & Francis Group.
Liu, M. D., and J. P. Carter. 2002. “A structured Cam Clay model.” Can. Geotech. J. 39 (6): 1313–1332. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-069.
Locat, A., H. P. Jostad, and S. Leroueil. 2013. “Numerical modeling of progressive failure and its implications for spreads in sensitive clays.” Can. Geotech. J. 50 (9): 961–978. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2012-0390.
Locat, A., P. Locat, D. Demers, S. Leroueil, D. Robitaille, and G. Lefebvre. 2017. “The Saint-Jude landslide of 10 May 2010, Quebec, Canada: Investigation and characterization of the landslide and its failure mechanism.” Can. Geotech. J. 54 (10): 1357–1374. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0085.
Longva, O., N. Janbu, L. H. Blikra, and R. Bøe. 2003. “The 1996 Finneidfjord slide; seafloor failure and slide dynamics.” In Submarine mass movements and their consequences, 531–538. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Loria, A. R., B. Frigo, and B. Chiaia. 2017. “A non-linear constitutive model for describing the mechanical behaviour of frozen ground and permafrost.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 133 (Jan): 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.10.010.
Lu, J., A. Elgamal, L. Yan, K. H. Law, and J. P. Conte. 2011. “Large-scale numerical modeling in geotechnical earthquake engineering.” Int. J. Geomech. 11 (6): 490–503. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000042.
Lu, J., P. Kamatchi, and A. Elgamal. 2019. “Using stone columns to mitigate lateral deformation in uniform and stratified liquefiable soil strata.” Int. J. Geomech. 19 (5): 04019026. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001397.
Masing, G. 1926. “Eigenspannumyen und verfeshungung beim messing.” In Proc. Int. Congress for Applied Mechanics, 332–335. Zürich, Switzerland: Orell Füssli.
Matasović, N., and M. Vucetic. 1995. “Generalized cyclic-degradation-pore-pressure generation model for clays.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (1): 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:1(33).
Mazzoni, S., F. McKenna, M. H. Scott, and G. L. Fenves. 2006. OpenSees command language manual. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center.
McKenna, F., M. H. Scott, and G. L. Fenves. 2009. “Nonlinear finite-element analysis software architecture using object composition.” J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 24 (1): 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000002.
Mohammadi, S., and H. A. Taiebat. 2013. “A large deformation analysis for the assessment of failure induced deformations of slopes in strain softening materials.” Comput. Geotech. 49 (Apr): 279–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2012.08.006.
Newmark, N. M. 1965. “Effects of earthquakes on dams and embankments.” Géotechnique 15 (2): 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1965.15.2.139.
Nguyen, L., and B. Fatahi. 2016. “Behaviour of clay treated with cement and amp; fibre while capturing cementation degradation and fibre failure-C3F Model.” Int. J. Plast. 81 (Jun): 168–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2016.01.015.
Park, D. S., and B. L. Kutter. 2015. “Static and seismic stability of sensitive clay slopes.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 79 (Part A): 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2015.09.006.
Park, D. S., and B. L. Kutter. 2016. “Sensitive bounding surface constitutive model for structured clay.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 40 (14): 1968–1987. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2507.
Parra, E. 1996. “Numerical modeling of liquefaction and lateral ground deformation including cyclic mobility and dilation response in soil systems.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Perret, D., R. Mompin, D. Demers, G. Lefebvre, and A. J. M. Pugin. 2013. “Two large sensitive clay landslides triggered by the 2010 Val-Des-Bois Earthquake, Quebec (Canada) Implications for Risk Management.” In Proc., 1st Int. Workshop on Landslides in Sensitive Clays (IWLSC), 28–30. Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
Petrini, L., C. Maggi, M. N. Priestley, and G. M. Calvi. 2008. “Experimental verification of viscous damping modeling for inelastic time history analyzes.” J. Earthquake Eng. 12 (S1): 125–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632460801925822.
Prévost, J. H. 1977. “Mathematical modelling of monotonic and cyclic undrained clay behaviour.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 1 (2): 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.1610010206.
Prévost, J. H., and K. Hoeg. 1975. “Soil mechanics and plasticity analysis of strain softening.” Géotechnique 25 (2): 279–297. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1975.25.2.279.
Priestley, M. J. N., and D. N. Grant. 2005. “Viscous damping in seismic design and analysis.” J. Earthquake Eng. 9 (spec02): 229–255. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1363246905002365.
Quinn, P. E., M. S. Diederichs, R. K. Rowe, and D. J. Hutchinson. 2011. “A new model for large landslides in sensitive clay using a fracture mechanics approach.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (8): 1151–1162. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-025.
Quinn, P. E., M. S. Diederichs, R. K. Rowe, and D. J. Hutchinson. 2012. “Development of progressive failure in sensitive clay slopes.” Can. Geotech. J. 49 (7): 782–795. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-034.
Rodrıguez, C. E., J. J. Bommer, and R. J. Chandler. 1999. “Earthquake-induced landslides: 1980–1997.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 18 (5): 325–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(99)00012-3.
Seed, H. B., and I. M. Idriss. 1970. Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response analyses. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California.
Seed, H. B., and S. D. Wilson. 1967. The Turnagain heights landslide in Anchorage, Alaska. Berkeley, CA: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Seed, H. B., R. T. Wong, I. M. Idriss, and K. Tokimatsu. 1986. “Moduli and damping factors for dynamic analyses of cohesionless soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. 112 (11): 1016–1032. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1986)112:11(1016).
Sharma, S. S., and M. Fahey. 2003a. “Degradation of stiffness of cemented calcareous soil in cyclic triaxial tests.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (7): 619–629. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:7(619).
Sharma, S. S., and M. Fahey. 2003b. “Evaluation of cyclic shear strength of two cemented calcareous soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (7): 608–618. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:7(608).
Sharma, S. S., and M. Fahey. 2004. “Deformation characteristics of two cemented calcareous soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 41 (6): 1139–1151. https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-066.
Shelman, A., J. Tantalla, S. Sritharan, S. Nikolaou, and H. Lacy. 2014. “Characterization of seasonally frozen soils for seismic design of foundations.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (7): 04014031. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001065.
Solberg, I. L., M. Long, V. C. Baranwal, A. S. Gylland, and J. S. Rønning. 2016. “Geophysical and geotechnical studies of geology and sediment properties at a quick-clay landslide site at Esp, Trondheim, Norway.” Eng. Geol. 208 (Jun): 214–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.04.031.
Stark, T. D., and I. A. Contreras. 1998. “Fourth Avenue landslide during 1964 Alaskan earthquake.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 124 (2): 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:2(99).
Su, L., J. Lu, A. Elgamal, and A. K. Arulmoli. 2017. “Seismic performance of a pile-supported wharf: Three-dimensional finite element simulation.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 95 (Apr): 167–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.01.009.
Suebsuk, J., S. Horpibulsuk, and M. D. Liu. 2011. “A critical state model for overconsolidated structured clays.” Comput. Geotech. 38 (5): 648–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2011.03.010.
Sun, J. I., R. Golesorkhi, and H. B. Seed. 1988. Dynamic moduli and damping ratios for cohesive soils. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California.
Taiebat, M., A. M. Kaynia, and Y. F. Dafalias. 2010. “Application of an anisotropic constitutive model for structured clay to seismic slope stability.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (5): 492–504. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000458.
Terzaghi, K., R. B. Peck, and G. Mesri. 1996. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. New York: Wiley.
Troncone, A. 2005. “Numerical analysis of a landslide in soils with strain-softening behaviour.” Géotechnique 55 (8): 585–596. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2005.55.8.585.
Troncone, A., E. Conte, and A. Donato. 2014. “Two and three-dimensional numerical analysis of the progressive failure that occurred in an excavation-induced landslide.” Eng. Geol. 183 (Dec): 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.08.027.
Tsai, C. C., L. H. Mejia, and P. Meymand. 2014. “A strain-based procedure to estimate strength softening in saturated clays during earthquakes.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 66 (Nov): 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.07.003.
Vucetic, M. 1988. “Normalized behavior of offshore clay under uniform cyclic loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 25 (1): 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1139/t88-004.
Vucetic, M., and R. Dobry. 1988. “Degradation of marine clays under cyclic loading.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (2): 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:2(133).
Wang, C., B. Hawlader, and D. Perret. 2016. “Finite element simulation of the 2010 Saint-Jude landslide in Quebec.” In Proc., 69th Canadian Geotechnical Conf. Quebec City: GeoVancouver.
Whittle, A. J., and M. J. Kavvadas. 1994. “Formulation of MIT-E3 constitutive model for overconsolidated clays.” J. Geotech. Eng. 120 (1): 173–198. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:1(173).
Wilson, P., and A. Elgamal. 2015. “Shake table lateral earth pressure testing with dense c- backfill.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 71 (Apr): 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.12.009.
Yang, Z. 2000. “Numerical modeling of earthquake site response including dilation and liquefaction.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia Univ.
Yang, Z., and A. Elgamal. 2002. “Influence of permeability on liquefaction-induced shear deformation.” J. Eng. Mech. 128 (7): 720–729. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2002)128:7(720).
Yang, Z. J., B. Still, and X. Ge. 2015. “Mechanical properties of seasonally frozen and permafrost soils at high strain rate.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 113 (May): 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2015.02.008.
Yao, Y., Z. Gao, J. Zhao, and Z. Wan. 2012. “Modified UH model: Constitutive modeling of overconsolidated clays based on a parabolic Hvorslev envelope.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 138 (7): 860–868. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000649.
Zergoun, M., and Y. P. Vaid. 1994. “Effective stress response of clay to undrained cyclic loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (5): 714–727. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-083.
Zhang, Y., Z. Yang, J. Liu, and J. Fang. 2017. “Impact of cooling on shear strength of high salinity soils.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 141 (Sep): 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.06.005.
Zhou, Y. G., J. Chen, Y. She, A. M. Kaynia, B. Huang, and Y. M. Chen. 2017. “Earthquake response and sliding displacement of submarine sensitive clay slopes.” Eng. Geol. 227 (Sep): 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.05.004.
Zhu, Y., and D. L. Carbee. 1984. “Uniaxial compressive strength of frozen silt under constant deformation rates.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 9 (1): 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-232X(84)90043-0.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146 • Issue 7 • July 2020
Copyright
©2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: May 29, 2019
Accepted: Jan 28, 2020
Published online: Apr 29, 2020
Published in print: Jul 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Sep 29, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.