Nonlinear Site Response Analysis with Pore-Water Pressure Generation for Liquefaction Triggering Evaluation
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 2
Abstract
The cyclic-stress approach is widely used to evaluate level-ground liquefaction triggering. Although easy to use, several limitations introduce significant uncertainty in the analysis, including: (1) several correction factors are required, including the depth reduction, magnitude scaling, and overburden correction factors; (2) seismic demand is quantified using a total-stress framework to capture an effective stress phenomenon [pore-water pressure (PWP) generation and liquefaction]; and (3) because it is based on surface manifestations, its applicability outside of database parameters (e.g., ) is unknown. In this study, the authors performed a broad parametric study to assess the viability of using nonlinear site response analysis with validated constitutive and PWP generation models to evaluate level-ground liquefaction. For a wide range of conditions, the parametric results agreed with published empirical liquefaction-triggering relations. The nonlinear site response analysis with PWP generation also correctly predicted liquefaction for dynamic centrifuge tests and field cases, demonstrating that this approach can assess level-ground liquefaction while avoiding highly uncertain correction factors required in the cyclic stress method.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Drs. Wu and Polito for sharing their laboratory test databases.
References
Ambraseys, N. N. 1988. “Engineering seismology. I.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 17 (1): 1–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290170101.
Ancheta, T. D., et al. 2014. “NGA-West2 database.” Earthquake Spectra 30 (3): 989–1005. https://doi.org/10.1193/070913EQS197M.
Andrade, J. E., A. M. Ramos, and A. Lizcano. 2013. “Criterion for flow liquefaction instability.” Acta Geotech. 8 (5): 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-013-0223-x.
Andrus, R. D., P. Piratheepan, B. S. Ellis, J. Zhang, and C. H. Juang. 2004. “Comparing liquefaction evaluation methods using penetration-Vs relationships.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 24 (9): 713–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2004.06.001.
Andrus, R. D., and K. H. Stokoe II. 2000. “Liquefaction resistance of soils from shear-wave velocity.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 126 (11): 1015–1025. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:11(1015).
Arulmoli, K., K. K. Muraleetharan, M. M. Hossain, and L. S. Fruth. 1992. VELACS: Verification of liquefaction analysis by centrifuge studies. Irvine, CA: Laboratory Testing Program, Soil Data Report, The Earth Technology Corporation.
Baturay, M. B., and J. P. Stewart. 2003. “Uncertainty and bias in ground-motion estimates from ground response analyses.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 93 (5): 2025–2042. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120020216.
Bay, J. A., and B. R. Cox. 2001. Shear wave velocity profiling and liquefaction assessment of sites shaken by the 1999 Kocaeli, Turkey earthquake. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research.
Boulanger, R. W., and I. M. Idriss. 2004. Evaluating the potential for liquefaction or cyclic failure of silts and clays. Davis, CA: Center for Geotechnical Modeling.
Boulanger, R. W., and I. M. Idriss. 2012. “Probabilistic standard penetration test–based liquefaction–triggering procedure.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 138 (10): 1185–1195. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000700.
Building Seismic Safety Council. 2015. NEHRP recommended seismic provisions for new buildings and other structures. Washington, DC: Building Seismic Safety Council.
Carlton, B. 2014. “An improved description of the seismic response of sites with high plasticity soils, organic clays, and deep soft soil deposits.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of California.
Cetin, K. O., R. B. Seed, A. Der Kiureghian, K. Tokimatsu, L. F. Harder, Jr., R. E. Kayen, and R. E. Moss. 2004. “Standard penetration test-based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction potential.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (12): 1314–1340. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:12(1314).
Cox, D. R., and E. J. Snell. 1970. The analysis of binary data. London: Methuen and Co.
Cubrinovski, M., K. Ishihara, and F. Tanizawa. 1996. “Numerical simulation of the Kobe Port Island liquefaction.” In Proc., 11th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Acapulco, Mexico.
Darendeli, M. B. 2001. “Development of a new family of normalized modulus reduction and material damping curves.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin.
Darve, F. 1996. “Liquefaction phenomenon of granular materials and constitutive stability.” Eng. Comput. 13 (7): 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/02644409610151539.
Dashti, S. 2009. “Toward developing an engineering procedure for evaluating building performance on softened ground.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of California.
Dobry, R., and T. Abdoun. 2011. “An investigation into why liquefaction charts work: A necessary step toward integrating the states of art and practice.” In Proc., 5th Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, 13–44. Santiago, Chile: Chilean Geotechnical Society.
Dobry, R., and T. Abdoun. 2015. “Cyclic shear strain needed for liquefaction triggering and assessment of overburden pressure factor Kσ.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (11): 04015047. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001342.
Dobry, R., R. S. Ladd, F. Y. Yokel, R. M. Chung, and D. Powell. 1982. “Prediction of pore water pressure buildup and liquefaction of sands during earthquakes by the cyclic strain method.” In National Bureau of Standards building science series. Gaithersburg, MD: National Bureau of Standards Publications.
Domenico, P. A., and M. D. Mifflin. 1965. “Water from low-permeability sediments and land subsidence.” Water Resour. Res. 1 (4): 563–576. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR001i004p00563.
Elgamal, A., Z. Yang, T. Lai, B. L. Kutter, and D. W. Wilson. 2005. “Dynamic response of saturated dense sand in laminated centrifuge container.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (5): 598–609. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:5(598).
Elgamal, A., Z. Yang, and E. Parra. 2002. “Computational modeling of cyclic mobility and post-liquefaction site response.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 22 (4): 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(02)00022-2.
Gingery, J. R. 2014. “Effects of liquefaction on earthquake ground motions.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Univ. of California.
Gingery, J. R., A. Elgamal, and J. D. Bray. 2015. “Response spectra at liquefaction sites during shallow crustal earthquakes.” Earthquake Spectra 31 (4): 2325–2349. https://doi.org/10.1193/101813EQS272M.
Groholski, D. R., Y. M. A. Hashash, B. Kim, M. Musgrove, J. Harmon, and J. P. Stewart. 2016. “Simplified model for small-strain nonlinearity and strength in 1-D seismic site response analysis.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (9): 04016042. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001496.
Hashash, Y. M. A., B. Kim, S. M. Olson, and S. Moon. 2014. “Geotechnical issues and site response in the central US.” In Seismic hazard design issues, 71–90. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Hashash, Y. M. A., M. Musgrove, D. R. Groholski, C. A. Phillips, and D. Park. 2016. DEEPSOIL 6.0, user manual. Urbana, IL: Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.
Hayden, C. P., J. D. Bray, and N. A. Abrahamson. 2014. “Selection of near-fault pulse motions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (7): 04014030. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001129.
Holzer, T. L., and T. L. Youd. 2007. “Liquefaction, ground oscillation, and soil deformation at the Wildlife Array, California.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 97 (3): 961–976. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120060156.
Idriss, I. M., and R. W. Boulanger. 2008. Soil liquefaction during earthquakes: Monograph MNO-12, 261. Oakland, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.
Idriss, I. M., and R. W. Boulanger. 2010. SPT-based liquefaction triggering procedures. Davis, CA: Center for Geotechnical Modeling, Univ. of California at Davis.
Ishihara, K. 1993. “Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes.” Geotechnique 43 (3): 351–451. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1993.43.3.351.
Ishihara, K., and S. I. Li. 1972. “Liquefaction of saturated sand in triaxial torsion shear test.” Soils Found. 12 (2): 19–39. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.12.19.
Jaky, J. 1944. “The coefficient of earth pressure at rest.” [In Hungarian.] J. Soc. Hung. Architects Eng. 78 (22): 355–388.
Juang, C. H., T. Jiang, and R. D. Andrus. 2002. “Assessing probability-based methods for liquefaction potential evaluation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 128 (7): 580–589. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:7(580).
Kammerer, A., J. Wu, J. Pestana, M. Riemer, and R. Seed. 2000. Cyclic simple shear testing of Nevada sand for PEER Center. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California.
Karimi, Z., and S. Dashti. 2015. “Numerical simulation of earthquake induced soil liquefaction: Validation against centrifuge experimental results.” In IFCEE 2015, 11–20. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Kayen, R., R. E. S. Moss, E. M. Thompson, R. B. Seed, K. O. Cetin, A. D. Kiureghian, and K. Tokimatsu. 2013. “Shear-wave velocity–based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction potential.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (3): 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000743.
Kayen, R. E., J. K. Mitchell, R. B. Seed, A. Lodge, S. Y. Nishio, and R. Coutinho. 1992. “Evaluation of SPT-, CPT-, and shear wave-based methods for liquefaction potential assessment using Loma Prieta data.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., 4th Japan–US Workshop on Earthquake Resistant Design of Lifeline Facilities and Countermeasures for Soil Liquefaction, 177–192. New York: National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research.
Kenan, H. 2005. “Pore pressure generation characteristics of sands and silty sands: A strain approach.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of Texas.
Kramer, S. L., B. A. Asl, P. Ozener, and S. S. Sideras. 2015. “Effects of liquefaction on ground surface motions.” In Perspectives on earthquake geotechnical engineering, 285–309. New York: Springer.
Liao, S. S., D. Veneziano, and R. V. Whitman. 1988. “Regression models for evaluating liquefaction probability.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (4): 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:4(389).
Lodge, A. L. 1994. “Shear wave velocity measurements for subsurface characterization.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of California.
Markham, C. S. 2015. “Response of liquefiable sites in the central business district of Christchurch, New Zealand.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of California.
Matasovic, N. 1993. “Seismic response of composite horizontally-layered soil deposits.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of California.
Matasovic, N., and M. Vucetic. 1995. “Generalized cyclic-degradation-pore-pressure generation model for clays.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (1): 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:1(33).
McGuire, R. K., W. J. Silva, and C. J. Costantino. 2001. Technical basis for revision of regulatory guidance on design ground motions: Hazard- and risk-consistent ground motion spectra guidelines. Washington, DC: US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Mei, X. 2018. “Porewater pressure generation and liquefaction analysis using nonlinear, effective stress-based site response analysis.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign.
Mei, X., S. M. Olson, and Y. M. Hashash. Forthcoming. “Evaluation of a simplified soil constitutive model considering implied strength and porewater pressure generation for 1-D seismic site response.” Can. Geotech. J. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2018-0893.
Mei, X., S. M. Olson, and Y. M. Hashash. 2018. “Empirical porewater pressure generation model parameters in 1-D seismic site response analysis.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 114 (Nov): 563–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.07.011.
Menq, F. Y. 2003. “Dynamic properties of sandy and gravelly soil.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of Texas.
Mitchell, J. K. 1994. Vol. 94 of In situ test results from four Loma Prieta earthquake liquefaction sites: SPT, CPT, DMT and shear wave velocity. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center, College of Engineering, Univ. of California at Berkeley.
Moss, R. E., R. B. Seed, R. E. Kayen, J. P. Stewart, A. Der Kiureghian, and K. O. Cetin. 2006. “CPT-based probabilistic and deterministic assessment of in situ seismic soil liquefaction potential.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (8): 1032–1051. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:8(1032).
Pestana, J. M., C. H. Hunt, and R. R. Goughnour. 1997. FEQDRAIN: A finite element computer program for the analysis of the earthquake generation and dissipation of pore water pressure in layered sand deposits with vertical drains. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California.
Phillips, C., and Y. M. Hashash. 2009. “Damping formulation for nonlinear 1D site response analyses.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 29 (7): 1143–1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2009.01.004.
Polito, C. P. 1999. “The effects of non-plastic and plastic fines on the liquefaction of sandy soils.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Virginia Tech.
Poulos, S. J., G. Castro, and J. W. France. 1985. “Liquefaction evaluation procedure.” J. Geotech. Eng. 111 (6): 772–792. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1985)111:6(772).
Robertson, P. K., D. J. Woeller, and W. D. L. Finn. 1992. “Seismic cone penetration test for evaluating liquefaction potential under cyclic loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 29 (4): 686–695. https://doi.org/10.1139/t92-075.
Robertson, P. K., and C. E. Wride. 1998. “Evaluating cyclic liquefaction potential using the cone penetration test.” Can. Geotech. J. 35 (3): 442–459. https://doi.org/10.1139/t98-017.
Seed, B., and K. L. Lee. 1966. “Liquefaction of saturated sands during cyclic loading.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 92 (6): 105–134.
Seed, H. B., and I. M. Idriss. 1971. “Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 97 (9): 1249–1273.
Seed, H. B., I. M. Idriss, F. Makdisi, and N. Banerjee. 1975. Representation of irregular stress time histories by equivalent uniform stress series in liquefaction analyses. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California.
Shahi, S., and J. Baker. 2012. “Pulse classifications from NGA West2 database.” Accessed November 2, 2019. http://web.stanford.edu/∼bakerjw/pulse_classification_v2/Pulse-like-records.html.
Shahien, M. M. 1998. “Settlement of structures on granular soils subjected to static and earthquake loads.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environment Engineering, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign.
Stark, T. D., and S. M. Olson. 1995. “Liquefaction resistance using CPT and field case histories.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (12): 856–869. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:12(856).
Terzaghi, K., R. B. Peck, and G. Mesri. 1996. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. New York: Wiley.
Toprak, S., T. L. Holzer, M. J. Bennett, and J. C. Tinsley III. 1999. “CPT-and SPT-based probabilistic assessment of liquefaction.” In Proc., 7th US–Japan Workshop on Earthquake Resistant Design of Lifeline Facilities and Countermeasures against Liquefaction, 69–86. Buffalo, NY: Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research.
Vucetic, M., and R. Dobry. 1986. Pore pressure build-up and liquefaction at level sandy sites during earthquakes. Troy, NY: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Vucetic, M., and R. Dobry. 1991. “Effect of soil plasticity on cyclic response.” J. Geotech. Eng. 117 (1): 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1991)117:1(89).
Whitman, R. V. 1971. “Resistance of soil to liquefaction and settlement.” Soils Found. 11 (4): 59–68. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1960.11.4_59.
Wijewickreme, D., and A. Soysa. 2016. “Stress–strain pattern–based criterion to assess cyclic shear resistance of soil from laboratory element tests.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (9): 1460–1473. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0499.
Wilson, D. W., R. W. Boulanger, and B. L. Kutter. 1997. Soil-pile-superstructure interaction at soft or liquefiable soil sites—Centrifuge data report for CSP02. Davis, CA: Center for Geotechnical Modeling, CEE Dept., Univ. of California.
Wu, J., R. B. Seed, and J. M. Pestana. 2003. Liquefaction triggering and post liquefaction deformations of Monterey 0/30 sand under uni-directional cyclic simple shear loading. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California.
Yang, Z., J. Lu, and A. Elgamal. 2008. “OpenSees soil models and solid-fluid fully coupled elements.” In User’s manual: Version 1. La Jolla, CA: Univ. of California, San Diego.
Youd, T. L., et al. 2001. “Liquefaction resistance of soils: Summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 127 (10): 817–834. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:4(297).
Youd, T. L., and B. L. Carter. 2005. “Influence of soil softening and liquefaction on spectral acceleration.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (7): 811–825. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:7(811).
Youd, T. L., and S. K. Noble. 1997. Liquefaction criteria based on statistical and probabilistic analyses. Buffalo, NY: National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research.
Zhou, Y. G., and Y. M. Chen. 2007. “Laboratory investigation on assessing liquefaction resistance of sandy soils by shear wave velocity.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (8): 959–972. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:8(959).
Ziotopoulou, K., R. W. Boulanger, and S. L. Kramer. 2012. “Site response analysis of liquefying sites.” In Proc., GeoCongress Conf. 2012. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146 • Issue 2 • February 2020
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jan 7, 2019
Accepted: Aug 9, 2019
Published online: Nov 27, 2019
Published in print: Feb 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Apr 27, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.