Earth Pressures on Retaining Walls Backfilled with Sand Admixed with Building Derived Materials: Laboratory Scale Study
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 21, Issue 6
Abstract
Earth retaining structures are constructed to withstand lateral pressure from backfill soil and surcharge pressures from the foundations of adjacent structures. Although sands are considered as the most suitable backfill material for retaining walls due to their high permeability, currently the scarcity of this natural material has raised serious environmental concerns. This study will propose the usage of building derived materials (BDM) as a partial replacement for sand as backfill material for the retaining walls. The utilization of this waste material will help to reduce the cost related to the disposal of waste materials, as well as reducing the carbon footprint, therefore making the process eco-friendly and sustainable. Experimental studies will be conducted on a laboratory scale prototype rigid, nonyielding retaining wall, which can rotate about its base to simulate rotational failure conditions. The width of the backfill was 0.35, 0.5, and 0.65H to assess its effect on the variation of earth pressures (H = height of the retaining wall). The experimental results indicate that the earth pressures were not significantly enhanced by the addition of BDM to sand, which suggests that BDM could be used as an effective lightweight backfill. The optimum pressure was obtained by mixing 20% of BDM with red soil. For backfills that had sufficient widths, the failure surfaces had adequate space to fully develop, whereas it had a limited extension in a narrow backfill. An increase in backfill width (b) decreased the rotation of the wall, therefore reducing the probability of rotational failure. Numerical simulations using finite element software PLAXIS 2D are conducted with the experiments to validate the observations. The numerical results suggest good agreement with that of experimental results.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Science and Engineering Research Board, Govt. of India through the Early Career Research Award (Project ID: ECR/2016/000522).
References
Arulrajah, A., J. Piratheepan, M. M. Y. Ali, and M. W. Bo. 2012a. “Geotechnical properties of recycled concrete aggregate in pavement sub-base applications.” Geotech. Test. J. 35 (5): 103402. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103402.
Arulrajah, A., J. Piratheepan, M. W. Bo, and N. Sivakugan. 2012b. “Geotechnical characteristics of recycled crushed brick blends for pavement sub-base applications.” Can. Geotech. J. 49 (7): 796–811. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-041.
ASTM. 2001. Standard test method for density, relative density (specific gravity), and absorption of fine aggregate. ASTM C128-01. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2003. Standard test method for resistance to degradation of small-size coarse aggregate by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles machine. ASTM C131-03. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2007. Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. ASTM D422-63-e2. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2012. Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)). ASTM D698 12e2. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2014. Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer. ASTM D854-14. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2017. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). ASTM D2487-11. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018. Standard test method for ph of chemically cleaned or etched concrete surfaces. ASTM D4262-05. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2019. Standard test method for density, relative density (specific gravity), and absorption of coarse aggregate. ASTM C127-01. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020. Standard test method for consolidated undrained triaxial compression test for cohesive soils. ASTM D4767–11. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bhattacharyya, S. K., A. K. Minocha, M. Garg, J. Singh, N. Jain, S. Maiti, and S. K. Singh. 2013. “Demolition wastes as raw materials for sustainable construction products.” CSIR-CBRI News Letter 33: 1–2.
Bianchini, G., E. Marrocchino, R. Tassinari, and C. Vaccaro. 2005. “Recycling of construction and demolition waste materials: A chemical–mineralogical appraisal.” Waste Manage. 25 (2): 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2004.09.005.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2010. Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills. BS 8006-1. London: BSI.
Chung, S. S., and C. W. H. Lo. 2003. “Evaluating sustainability in waste management: The case of construction and demolition, chemical and clinical wastes in Hong Kong.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 37 (2): 119–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00075-7.
Coulomb, C. A. 1776. “Essai sur une application des regles des maximis et minimis a quelques problemes de statique relatifs a l'architecture.” Memoires de Mathematique de l'Academie Royale de Science 7, Paris.
Dave, T. N., and S. M. Dasaka. 2012. “Transition of earth pressure on rigid retaining walls subjected to surcharge loading.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 6: 427–436. https://doi.org/10.3328/IJGE.2012.06.04.427-435.
David, S. L., T. C. Sheahan, J. F. Labuz, and B. Theroux. 2005. “Laboratory calibration of earth pressure cells.” Geotech. Test. J. 28 (2): 12089. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ12089.
Duncan, J. M., P. Byrne, K. S. Wong, and P. Mabry. 1980. Strength, stress-strain, and bulk modulus parameters for finite element analyses of stresses and movements in soil masses. Geotechnical Engineering Research Rep. No. UCB/GT/80-01. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California.
Duncan, J. M., and C. Y. Chang. 1970. “Nonlinear analysis of stress and strain in soils.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 96 (SM5): 1629–1653. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0001458.
Fang, Y. S., T. J. Chen, and B. F. Wu. 1994. “Passive earth pressures with various wall movements.” J. Geotech. Eng. 120 (8): 1307–1323. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:8(1307).
Fang, Y. S., and I. Ishibashi. 1986. “Static earth pressures with various wall movements.” J. Geotech. Eng. 112 (3): 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1986)112:3(317).
Fang, Y. S., and C. C. Lee. 2006. “Passive earth pressures with various backfill densities.” In Proc. of 6th Int. Conf. Physical Modelling in Geotechnics, 1081–1086. London: Taylor & Francis Group.
Frydman, S., and I. Keissar. 1987. “Earth pressure on retaining walls near rock faces.” J. Geotech. Eng. 113: 586–599. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1987)113:6(586).
Han, J., and J. K. Thakur. 2013. “Use of geosynthetics to stabilize recycled aggregates in roadway construction.” In Int. Conf. Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Construction, edited by W. K. O. Chong, J. Gong, J. Chang, and M. K. Siddiqui, 473–480. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Horpibulsuk, S., C. Phetchuay, and A. Chinkulkijniwat. 2012. “Soil stabilization by calcium carbide residue and fly ash.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24: 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000370.
Huang, W.-L., D.-H. Lin, N.-B. Chang, and K.-S. Lin. 2002. “Recycling of construction and demolition waste via a mechanical sorting process.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 37 (1): 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00053-8.
Ishihara, M., and H. Matsuzawa. 1973. “Application of plane strain tests on earth pressure.” In Vol. 1 of Proc. of 8th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 185–190. London: ISSMGE.
Jain, S., S. Singhal, and N. K. Jain. 2019. “Construction and demolition waste generation in cities in India: An integrated approach.” Int. J. Sustainable Eng. 12 (5): 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2019.1612967.
Jaky, J. 1948. “Pressure in silos.” In Vol. 1 of 2nd Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 103–107. Haarlem, The Netherlands: The Conference.
Jayatheja, M., A. GuhaRay, A. K. Suluguru, A. Anand, and A. Kar. 2018. “Performance of cohesionless soil partially replaced with building derived materials as a foundation material under static loading conditions.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2018.1543791.
Kampala, A., S. Horpibulsuk, A. Chinkullijniwat, and S.-L. Shen. 2013. “Engineering properties of recycled calcium carbide residue stabilized clay as fill and pavement materials.” Constr. Build. Mater. 46: 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.04.037.
Lee, J. H., R. Salgado, A. Bernal, and C. W. Lovell. 1999. “Shredded tires and rubber-sand as lightweight backfill.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (2): 132–141. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:2(132).
Lee, S.-G., and S. R. Hencher. 2009. “The repeated failure of a cut-slope despite continuous reassessment and remedial works.” Eng. Geol. 107 (1–2): 16–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.03.011.
Mindess, S., J. F. Young, and D. Darwin. 2003. Concrete. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc.
Mitchell, R. W. 1983. Earth structures engineering. Boston: Allen and Unwin.
Mohammadinia, A., A. Arulrajah, J. Sanjayan, M. M. Disfani, W. M. Bo, and S. Darmawan. 2015. “Laboratory evaluation of the use of cement-treated construction and demolition materials in pavement base and subbase applications.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng.27: 04014186. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001148.
Moreno-Pérez, E., J. Hernández-Ávila, Y. Rangel-Martínez, E. Cerecedo-Sáenz, A. Arenas-Flores, M. I. Reyes-Valderrama, and E. Salinas-Rodríguez. 2018. “Chemical and mineralogical characterization of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste from Mexico City.” Minerals 8: 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/min8060237.
PLAXIS. 2018. Plaxis materials model manual. Delft, Netherlands: PLAXIS.
Rahman, M. A., A. Arulrajah, J. Piratheepan, M. W. Bo, and M. A. Imteaz. 2014. “Resilient modulus and permanent deformation responses of geogrid-reinforced – Construction and demolition materials.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26 (3): 512–519. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000824.
Rao, A., K. N. Jha, and S. Misra. 2007. “Use of aggregates from recycled construction and demolition waste in concrete.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 50 (1): 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.05.010.
Roscoe, K. H. 1970. “The influence of strains in soil mechanics.” Géotechnique 20 (2): 129–170. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1970.20.2.129.
Sadrekarimi, A., and S. M. Olson. 2010. “Shear band formation observed in ring shear tests on sandy soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (2): 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000220.
Santos, E. C. G., E. M. Palmeira, and R. J. Bathurst. 2013. “Behaviour of a geogrid reinforced wall built with recycled construction and demolition waste backfill on a collapsible foundation.” Geotext. Geomembr. 39: 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2013.07.002.
Santos, E. C. G., and O. M. Vilar. 2008. “Use of recycled construction and demolition wastes (RCDW) as backfill of reinforced soil structures.” In Proc., 4th European Geosynthetics Conf. (EuroGeo 4), Paper No. 199. Edinburgh, UK: EuroGeo 4.
Saribas, I., and B. Ok. 2019. “Seismic performance of recycled aggregate–filled cantilever reinforced concrete retaining walls.” Advances in Mechanical Engineering 11 (4): 168781401983811. https://doi.org/10.1177/1687814019838112.
Selig, E. 1980. “Soil stress gauge calibration.” Geotech. Test. J. 3 (4): 153–158.
Sivakumar, V., and D. Glynn. 2004. “Geotechnical aspects of recycled construction wastes.” In Proc., Int. Conf., Concrete and Masonry Research Group, edited by M. C. Limbachiya and J. J. Roberts. London: Kingston Univ.
Suluguru, A. K., M. Jayatheja, A. Kar, A. GuhaRay, S. R. Surana, and N. James. 2017. “Experimental studies on the microstructural, physical and chemical characteristics of building derived materials to assess their suitability in ground improvement.” Constr. Build. Mater. 156: 921–932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.058.
Surarak, C., S. Likitlersuang, D. Wanatowski, A. Balasubramaniam, E. Oh, and H. Guan. 2012. “Stiffness and strength parameters for hardening soil model of soft and stiff Bangkok clays.” Soils Found. 52 (4): 682–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.07.009.
Tam, V. W. Y., and C. M. Tam. 2006. “A review on the viable technology for construction waste recycling.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 47 (3): 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2005.12.002.
Taylor, H. F. W. 1997. Cement chemistry. 2nd ed. London: Thomas Telford.
Terzaghi, K. 1934. “Large retaining wall tests I- pressure of dry sand.” Eng. News Rec. 112: 136–140.
Terzaghi, K. 1936. “A fundamental fallacy in earth pressure computation.” J. Boston Soc. Civ. Eng. 23: 71–88.
Weiler, W. A., and F. H. Kulhawy. 1982. “Factors affecting stress cell measurements in soil.” J. Geotech. Eng. 108 (12): 1529–1548.
Yang, K.-H., J. Ching, and J. G. Zornberg. 2011. “Reliability-based design for external stability of narrow mechanically stabilized earth walls: Calibration from centrifuge tests.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (3): 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000423.
Yang, M., and X. Tang. 2017. “Rigid retaining walls with cohesionless backfills under various wall movements.” Int. J. Geomech. 17 (11): 1–11.
Zhang, J.-M., Y. Shamoto, and K. Tokimatsu. 1998. “Evaluation of earth pressure under any lateral deformation.” Soils Found. 38 (1): 15–33. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.38.15.
Zhao, Z., S. Remond, D. Damidot, and W. Xu. 2015. “Influence of fine recycled concrete aggregates on the properties of mortars.” Constr. Build. Mater. 81: 179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.037.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jul 20, 2020
Accepted: Jan 10, 2021
Published online: Mar 23, 2021
Published in print: Jun 1, 2021
Discussion open until: Aug 23, 2021
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.