Crushing and Flooding Effects on One-Dimensional Time-Dependent Behaviors of a Granular Soil
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 20, Issue 2
Abstract
Particle crushing contributes significantly to the time-dependent compression behaviors of crushable granular soils. It also is widely accepted that flooding aggravates the breakage level of soil particles. This study investigated the combined behavior. A crushable granular soil was chosen for one-dimensional compression tests, i.e., constant rate of strain tests and multistage loading oedometer tests, under dry and saturated conditions. The crushing mechanism of particles was investigated by measuring the microhardness of soil particles. The shape characteristics (circularity, aspect ratio, roundness, and solidity) of particles before and after tests were analyzed by digital image processing (DIP) methods. The results showed isotach behavior for the tested soil in saturated condition. The compression curve, creep behavior, and level of particle breakage of initially dry specimens evolved in the same manner in which the initially saturated specimens behaved. The microhardness test clearly attributed the breakage of particles to the disaggregation of clay minerals which are the bonding materials between microquartz particles. This disaggregation became more severe after the moisturization of soil particles. The plastic work done to each specimen and the corresponding breakage ratio were correlated by two hyperbolic functions, which define two characteristic curves, for dry and for saturated/flooded conditions. The results from DIP analysis indicated that the average values of shape descriptors of all the particles in one specimen changed during compression, with a greater level under saturated or flooded condition than under dry condition.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
This research was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51579179). In addition, the authors thank Dr. Xuan Dongxing, Dr. Zhan Baojian, and Ruan Fei for their kind help in the tests.
References
Augustesen, A., M. Liingaard, and P. V. Lade. 2004. “Evaluation of time-dependent behavior of soils.” Int. J. Geomech. 4 (3): 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2004)4:3(137).
Bjerrum, L. 1967. “Engineering geology of Norwegian normally-consolidated marine clays as related to settlements of buildings.” Géotechnique 17 (2): 83–118. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1967.17.2.83.
Chen, Q., B. Indraratna, J. P. Carter, and S. Nimbalkar. 2016. “Isotropic-kinematic hardening model for coarse granular soils capturing particle breakage and cyclic loading under triaxial stress space.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (4): 646–658. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0166.
Chen, W. B., W. Q. Feng, J. H. Yin, L. Borana, and R. P. Chen. 2019a. “Characterization of permanent axial strain of granular materials subjected to cyclic loading based on shakedown theory.” Constr. Build. Mater. 198 (Feb): 751–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.012.
Chen, W. B., K. Liu, W. Q. Feng, L. Borana, and J. H. Yin. 2019b. “Influence of matric suction on nonlinear time-dependent compression behavior of granular fill material.” Acta Geotech. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-018-00761-y.
Chen, W. B., J. H. Yin, W. Q. Feng, L. Borana, and R. P. Chen. 2018. “Accumulated permanent axial strain of a subgrade fill under cyclic high-speed railway loading.” Int. J. Geomech. 18 (5): 04018018. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001119.
Cheng, C. M., and J. H. Yin. 2005. “Strain-rate dependent stress-strain behavior of undisturbed Hong Kong marine deposits under oedometric and triaxial stress states.” Mar. Georesour. Geotech. 23 (1–2): 61–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641190590953818.
Cil, M. B., and G. Buscarnera. 2016. “DEM assessment of scaling laws capturing the grain size dependence of yielding in granular soils.” Granular Matter 18 (3): 36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10035-016-0638-9.
Coop, M. R., K. K. Sorensen, T. Bodas Freitas, and G. Georgoutsos. 2004. “Particle breakage during shearing of a carbonate sand.” Géotechnique 54 (3): 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2004.54.3.157.
Couroyer, C., Z. Ning, M. Ghadiri, N. Brunard, F. Kolenda, D. Bortzmeyer, and P. Laval. 1999. “Breakage of macroporous alumina beads under compressive loading: Simulation and experimental validation.” Powder Technol. 105 (1–3): 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-5910(99)00118-7.
Daouadji, A., and P. Y. Hicher. 2010. “An enhanced constitutive model for crushable granular materials.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 34 (6): 555–580. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.815.
Einav, I. 2007. “Breakage mechanics—Part I: Theory.” J. Mech. Phys. Solids 55 (6): 1274–1297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmps.2006.11.003.
Ferreira, T., and W. Rasband. 2012. “ImageJ user guide—IJ 1.46.” Accessed October 2, 2012. https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/docs/guide/.
Fu, R., X. Hu, and B. Zhou. 2017. “Discrete element modeling of crushable sands considering realistic particle shape effect.” Comput. Geotech. 91 (Nov): 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2017.07.016.
Goodwin, A. K., M. A. O’Neill, and W. F. Anderson. 2003. “The use of X-ray computer tomography to investigate particulate interactions within opencast coal mine backfills.” Eng. Geol. 70 (3–4): 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(03)00101-7.
Guida, G., F. Casini, G. M. B. Viggiani, E. Andò, and G. Viggiani. 2018. “Breakage mechanisms of highly porous particles in 1D compression revealed by X-ray tomography.” Géotech. Lett. 8 (2): 155–160. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.18.00035.
Head, K. H. 1985. Vol. 3 of Manual of soil laboratory testing: Effective stress tests, 1129–1225. London: Pentech.
Hu, W., Z. Y. Yin, G. Scaringi, C. Dano, and P. Y. Hicher. 2018. “Relating fragmentation, plastic work and critical state in crushable rock clasts.” Eng. Geol. 246 (Nov): 326–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.10.012.
Hyodo, M., Y. Wu, N. Aramaki, and Y. Nakata. 2017. “Undrained monotonic and cyclic shear response and particle crushing of silica sand at low and high pressures.” Can. Geotech. J. 54 (2): 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0212.
Igarashi, S., A. Bentur, and S. Mindess. 1996. “Microhardness testing of cementitious materials.” Adv. Cem. Based Mater. 4 (2): 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1065-7355(96)90051-6.
Jin, Y. F., Z. Y. Yin, Z. X. Wu, and A. Daouadji. 2018a. “Numerical modeling of pile penetration in silica sands considering the effect of grain breakage.” Finite Elem. Anal. Des. 144 (May): 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.finel.2018.02.003.
Jin, Y. F., Z. Y. Yin, Z. X. Wu, and W. H. Zhou. 2018b. “Identifying parameters of easily crushable sand and application to offshore pile driving.” Ocean Eng. 154 (Apr): 416–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.01.023.
Jin, Y. F., Z. Y. Yin, W. H. Zhou, J. H. Yin, and J. F. Shao. 2019. “A single-objective EPR based model for creep index of soft clays considering regularization.” Eng. Geol. 248 (Jan): 242–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.12.006.
Karatza, Z., E. Andò, S. A. Papanicolopulos, J. Y. Ooi, and G. Viggiani. 2017. “Evolution of deformation and breakage in sand studied using X-ray tomography.” Géotechnique 68 (2): 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.208.
Karimpour, H., and P. V. Lade. 2010. “Time effects relate to crushing in sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. 136 (9): 1209–1219. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000335.
Kikkawa, N., M. J. Pender, R. P. Orense, J. D. StGeorge, and E. Matsushita. 2012. “ compression and stress relaxation of pumice sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. 138 (5): 625–628. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000629.
Kumara, G. H. A., K. Hayano, and K. Ogiwara. 2012. “Image analysis techniques on evaluation of particle size distribution of gravel.” Int. J. Geomate 3 (1): 290–297. https://doi.org/10.21660/2012.5.1261.
Kwok, C. Y., and M. D. Bolton. 2013. “DEM simulations of soil creep due to particle crushing.” Géotechnique 63 (16): 1365. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.11.P.089.
Lade, P. V., and H. Karimpour. 2010. “Static fatigue controls particle crushing and time effects in granular materials.” Soils Found. 50 (5): 573–583. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.50.573.
Lade, P. V., and H. Karimpour. 2015. “Stress relaxation behavior in Virginia Beach sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 52 (7): 813–835. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2013-0463.
Lade, P. V., and H. Karimpour. 2016. “Stress drop effects in time dependent behavior of quartz sand.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 87 (Jun): 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2016.02.015.
Lee, I. K., and M. R. Coop. 1995. “The intrinsic behaviour of a decomposed granite soil.” Géotechnique 45 (1): 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1995.45.1.117.
Li, J., Y. Huang, Z. Chen, M. Li, M. Qiao, and M. Kizil. 2018. “Particle-crushing characteristics and acoustic-emission patterns of crushing gangue backfilling material under cyclic loading.” Minerals 8 (6): 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/min8060244.
Lv, Y., F. Li, Y. Liu, P. Fan, and M. Wang. 2017. “Comparative study of coral sand and silica sand in creep under general stress states.” Can. Geotech. J. 54 (11): 1601–1611. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0295.
Manso, J., J. Marcelino, and L. Caldeira. 2018. “Crushing and oedometer compression of rockfill using DEM.” Comput. Geotech. 101: 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2018.04.009.
McDowell, G. R., and J. P. de Bono. 2013. “A new creep law for crushable aggregates.” Géotech. Lett. 3 (3): 103–107. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.13.00030.
McDowell, G. R., J. P. de Bono, P. Yue, and H. S. Yu. 2013. “Micro mechanics of isotropic normal compression.” Géotech. Lett. 3 (4): 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.13.00050.
Oldecop, L. A., and E. E. Alonso. 2007. “Theoretical investigation of the time-dependent behaviour of rockfill.” Géotechnique 57 (3): 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.3.289.
Ovalle, C., C. Dano, P. Y. Hicher, and M. Cisternas. 2015. “Experimental framework for evaluating the mechanical behavior of dry and wet crushable granular materials based on the particle breakage ratio.” Can. Geotech. J. 52 (5): 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0079.
Salami, Y., C. Dano, and P. Y. Hicher. 2017. “Infrared thermography of rock fracture.” Géotech. Lett. 7 (1): 36–40. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.16.00131.
Samsonov, G. V. 2012. Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements. New York: Springer.
Shi, X. S., and I. Herle. 2017. “Numerical simulation of lumpy soils using a hypoplastic model.” Acta Geotech. 12 (2): 349–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-016-0447-7.
Shi, X. S., I. Herle, and D. Muir Wood. 2018. “A consolidation model for lumpy composite soils in open-pit mining.” Géotechnique 68 (3): 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.054.
Shi, X. S., J. H. Yin, and J. D. Zhao. 2019. “An elastic visco-plastic model for binary sand-clay mixtures with applications to one-dimensional finite strain consolidation analysis.” J. Eng. Mech. 145 (8): 04019059. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001623.
Silvani, C., T. Désoyer, and S. Bonelli. 2009. “Discrete modelling of time-dependent rockfill behaviour.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 33 (5): 665–685. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.743.
Takei, M., O. Kusakabe, and T. Hayashi. 2001. “Time-dependent behavior of crushable materials in one-dimensional compression tests.” Soils Found. 41 (1): 97–121. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.41.97.
Ueng, T. S., and T. J. Chen. 2000. “Energy aspects of particle breakage in drained shear of sands.” Géotechnique 50 (1): 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2000.50.1.65.
Wang, L. Z., and Z. Y. Yin. 2015. “Stress-dilatancy of natural soft clay under undrained creep condition.” Int. J. Geomech. 15 (5): A4014002. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000271.
Xiao, Y., and H. Liu. 2017. “Elastoplastic constitutive model for rockfill materials considering particle breakage.” Int. J. Geomech. 17 (1): 04016041. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000681.
Xiao, Y., L. Long, T. M. Evans, H. Zhou, H. Liu, and A. W. Stuedlein. 2019a. “Effect of particle shape on stress-dilatancy responses of medium-dense sands.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (2): 04018105. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001994.
Xiao, Y., M. Meng, A. Daouadjie, Q. Chen, Z. Wu, and X. Jiang. 2019b. “Effect of particle size on crushing and deformation behaviors of rockfill materials.” Geosci. Front. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.1010.1010.
Xiong, H., F. Nicot, and Z. Yin. 2019. “From micro scale to boundary value problem: Using a micromechanically based model.” Acta Geotech. 14 (5): 1307–1323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-018-0717-7.
Xiong, H., F. Nicot, and Z. Y. Yin. 2017. “A three-dimensional micromechanically based model.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 41 (17): 1669–1686. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2692.
Xu, D. S., H. B. Liu, R. Rui, and Y. Gao. 2019a. “Cyclic and postcyclic simple shear behavior of binary sand-gravel mixtures with various gravel contents.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 123 (Aug): 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.04.030.
Xu, D. S., Z. Y. Tang, and L. Zhang. 2019b. “Interpretation of coarse effect in simple shear behavior of binary sand-gravel mixture by DEM with authentic particle shape.” Constr. Build. Mater. 195 (Jan): 292–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.059.
Xuan, D. X., Z. H. Shui, and S. P. Wu. 2009. “Influence of silica fume on the interfacial bond between aggregate and matrix in near-surface layer of concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (7): 2631–2635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.01.006.
Xuan, D. X., B. J. Zhan, and C. S. Poon. 2016. “Assessment of mechanical properties of concrete incorporating carbonated recycled concrete aggregates.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 65 (Jan): 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.10.018.
Yamamuro, J. A., P. A. Bopp, and P. V. Lade. 1996. “One-dimensional compression of sands at high pressures.” J. Geotech. Eng. 122 (2): 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1996)122:2(147).
Yin, J. H., and J. Graham. 1989. “Viscous–elastic–plastic modelling of one-dimensional time-dependent behaviour of clays.” Can. Geotech. J. 26 (2): 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1139/t89-029.
Yin, J. H., and J. Graham. 1994. “Equivalent times and one-dimensional elastic viscoplastic modelling of time-dependent stress–strain behaviour of clays.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (1): 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-005.
Yin, J. H., and J. Graham. 1999. “Elastic viscoplastic modelling of the time-dependent stress-strain behaviour of soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 36 (4): 736–745. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-36-4-736.
Yin, Z. Y., P. Y. Hicher, C. Dano, and Y. F. Jin. 2017a. “Modeling mechanical behavior of very coarse granular materials.” J. Eng. Mech. 143 (1): C4016006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001059.
Yin, Z. Y., Y. F. Jin, S. L. Shen, and H. W. Huang. 2017b. “An efficient optimization method for identifying parameters of soft structured clay by an enhanced genetic algorithm and elastic–viscoplastic model.” Acta Geotech. 12 (4): 849–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-016-0486-0.
Yin, Z. Y., M. Karstunen, C. S. Chang, M. Koskinen, and M. Lojander. 2011. “Modeling time-dependent behavior of soft sensitive clay.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (11): 1103–1113. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000527.
Yin, Z. Y., J. H. Yin, and H. W. Huang. 2014a. “Rate-dependent and long-term yield stress and strength of soft Wenzhou marine clay: Experiments and modeling.” Mar. Georesour. Geotech. 33 (1): 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2013.797060.
Yin, Z. Y., Q. Y. Zhu, J. H. Yin, and Q. Ni. 2014b. “Stress relaxation coefficient and formulation for soft soils.” Géotech. Lett. 4 (1): 45–51. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.13.00070.
Zhan, B. J., D. X. Xuan, and C. S. Poon. 2018. “Enhancement of recycled aggregate properties by accelerated curing coupled with limewater soaking process.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 89 (May): 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.03.011.
Zhou, B., J. Wang, and H. Wang. 2018. “Three-dimensional sphericity, roundness and fractal dimension of sand particles.” Géotechnique 68 (1): 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.207.
Zhu, Q. Y., Z. Y. Yin, P. Y. Hicher, and S. L. Shen. 2016. “Nonlinearity of one-dimensional creep characteristics of soft clays.” Acta Geotech. 11 (4): 887–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-015-0411-y.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 20 • Issue 2 • February 2020
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jan 31, 2019
Accepted: Jun 14, 2019
Published online: Nov 30, 2019
Published in print: Feb 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Apr 30, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.