Graywater Reclamation by a Shredded Tire Biofilter and a Membrane Bioreactor in Series
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 140, Issue 1
Abstract
The search for sustainable and effective water reclamation technologies has been stimulated by increasingly urgent water scarcity. Graywater (GW) is an excellent potential resource for relieving the water scarcity problem because it has a relatively low pollution level and because it is abundant and accessible. GW makes up approximately 70% of domestic wastewater. A new technology, shredded tire biofilter (STB), combined with a membrane bioreactor (MBR), was demonstrated to be an efficient method for treating GW to a level that satisfies the USEPA’s water reuse guidelines. In the proposed technology, the MBR ensured adequate effluent water quality, and the STB pretreated the GW. The technology may significantly reduce the energy required to treat GW by MBRs alone. It was further observed that increasing hydraulic retention time and decreasing shredded tire particle size enhanced the removal of in the STBs. Analysis of biofilms on shredded tire chips showed that microorganisms could attach and grow on tire shreds. Moreover, this combination would be economically feasible and environmentally sustainable for an average household (i.e., three to four people), making it a potentially promising technology for decentralized wastewater treatment.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This study is part of the project entitled Advanced Decentralized Water/Energy Network Design for Sustainable Infrastructure funded by the USEPA (EPA Number CR-83419301), which is greatly appreciated. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the USEPA.
References
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and Water Environment Federation (WEF). (2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 21st Ed., Washington, DC.
Arocha, M. A., McCoy, B. J., and Jackman, A. P. (1996). “Voc immobilization in soil by adsorption, absorption and encapsulation.” J. Hazard. Mater., 51(1–3), 131–149.
Bacchin, P., Aimar, P., and Sanchez, V. (1995). “Model for colloidal fouling of membranes.” Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. J., 41(2), 368–376.
Crittenden, J. C., Trussell, R. R., Hand, D. W., Howe, K. J., and Tchobanoglous, G. (2005). Water treatment: Principles and design, 2nd Ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
Fan, X., Urbain, V., Qian, Y., and Manem, J. (2000). “Ultrafiltration of activated sludge with ceramic membranes in across-flow membrane bioreactor process.” Water Sci. Technol., 41(10–11), 243–250.
Fane, A. G., and Fane, S. A. (2005). “The role of membrane technology in sustainable decentralized wastewater systems.” Water Sci. Technol., 51(10), 317–325.
Friedler, E., Kovalio, R., and Galil, N. I. (2005). “On-site greywater treatment and reuse in multi-storey buildings.” Water Sci. Technol., 51(10), 187–194.
Fruhen, M., Christan, E., Gujer, W., and Wanner, O. (1989). “Significance of spatial distribution of microbial species in mixed culture biofilms.” Water Sci. Technol., 23(7–9), 1365–1374.
Gardels, D. J. (2011). “Economic input-output life cycle assessment of water reuse strategies in residential buildings and communities.” M.S. thesis, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE.
Han, S.-S., Bae, T.-H., Jang, G.-G., and Tak, T.-M. (2005). “Influence of sludge retention time on membrane fouling and bioactivities in membrane bioreactor system.” Process Biochem., 40(7), 2393–2400.
Hu, M., Zhang, T., Stansbury, J., Neal, J., and Garboczi, E. (2013). “Determination of porosity and thickness of biofilm attached on irregular-shaped media.” J. Environ. Eng., 923–931.
Jang, J.-W., Yoo, T.-S., Oh, J.-H., and Iwasaki, I. (1998). “Discarded tire recycling practices in the United States, Japan and Korea.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 22(1–2), 1–14.
Jefferson, B., Brooks, A., Le-Clech, P., and Judd, S. (2004). “Methods for understanding organic fouling in MBRs.” Water Sci. Technol., 49(2), 237–244.
Jefferson, B., Burgess, J. E., Pichon, A., Harkness, J., and Judd, S. J. (2001). “Nutrient addition to enhance biological treatment of greywater.” Water Res., 35(11), 2702–2710.
Jefferson, B., Laine, A., Parsons, S., Stephenson, T., and Judd, S. (2000). “Technologies for domestic wastewater recycling.” Urban Water, 1(4), 285–292.
Kershaw, D. S., and Pamukcu, S. (1997). “Ground rubber: Reactive permeable barrier sorption media.” Proc. of the In Situ Remediation of the Geoenvironment, ASCE, Minneapolis, MN, 26–40.
Lawrence, J. R., Korber, D. R., Hoyle, B. D., Costerton, J. W., and Caldwell, D. E. (1991). “Optical sectioning of microbial biofilms.” J. Bacteriol., 173(20), 6558–6567.
Le-Clech, P., Chen, V., and Fane, T. A. G. (2006). “Fouling in membrane bioreactors used in wastewater treatment.” J. Membrane Sci., 284(1–2), 17–53.
Lens, P. N. L., Zeeman, G., and Lettinga, G. (2001). Decentralised sanitation and reuse–Concepts, systems and implementation, IWA, London.
Liu, R., Huang, X., Chen, L., Wen, X., and Qian, Y. (2005). “Operational performance of a submerged membrane bioreactor for reclamation of bath wastewater.” Process Biochem., 40(1), 125–130.
Massoud, M. A., Tarhini, A., and Nasr, J. A. (2009). “Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: Applicability in developing countries.” J. Environ. Manage., 90(1), 652–659.
Mays, D., Ren, Z. J., and Rhodes, E. P. (2011). Trash to treasure: Using crumb rubber from recycled tires for storm water pollution control, Final Evaluation Rep., Advanced Technology Fund Research Grant, Colorado Dept. of Public Health and Environment, Denver.
Meng, X., Hua, Z., Dermatas, D., Wang, W., and Hsiu Yu, K. (1998). “Immobilization of mercury(ii) in contaminated soil with used tire rubber.” J. Hazard. Mater., 57(1), 231–241.
Merz, C., Scheumann, R., El Hamouri, B., and Kraume, M. (2007). “Membrane bioreactor technology for the treatment of greywater from a sports and leisure club.” Desalination, 215(1–3), 37–43.
Mondal, B., Warith, M. A., and Burns, S. D. (2007). Comparison of shredded tire chips and tire crumbs as packing media in trickling filters, National Water Research Institute, Burlington, Ontario, Canada.
Netzer, A., Wilkinson, P., and Beszedits, S. (1974). “Removal of trace metals from wastewater by treatment with lime and discarded automotive tires.” Water Res., 8(10), 813–817.
Ng, H. Y., Tan, T. W., and Ong, S. L. (2006). “Membrane fouling of submerged membrane bioreactors: Impact of mean cell residence time and the contributing factors.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 40(8), 2706–2713.
Nolde, E. (2000). “Greywater reuse systems for toilet flushing in multi-storey buildings – Over ten years experience in Berlin.” Urban Water, 1(4), 275–284.
Park, J. K., Kim, J. Y., and Edil, T. B. (1996). “Mitigation of organic compound movement in landfills by shredded tires.” Water Environ. Res., 68(1), 4–10.
Ramamoorthy, S., and Miller, D. R. (1979). “Removal of mercury and methylmercury from waste waters by sorption.” Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol., 22(1), 196–201.
Reddy, K. R., Stark, T. D., and Marella, A. (2010). “Beneficial use of shredded tires as drainage material in cover systems for abandoned landfills.” Pract. Periodical Hazard. Toxic Radioactive Waste Manage., 47–60.
Shin, H.-S., Kyu-Seon, Y., and Park, J. K. (1999). “Removal of polychlorinated phenols in sequential anaerobic-aerobic biofilm reactors packed with tire chips.” Water Environ. Res., 71(3), 363–367.
Sullivan, J. P. (2006). An assessment of environmental toxicity and potential contamination from artificial turf using shredded or crumb rubber, Turfgrass Producers International, East Dundee, IL.
Tang, Z., Butkus, M. A., and Xie, Y. F. (2006). “Crumb rubber filtration: A potential technology for ballast water treatment.” Mar. Environ. Res., 61(4), 410–423.
Taylor, M. A., Garboczi, E. J., Erdogan, S. T., and Fowler, D. W. (2006). “Some properties of irregular 3-d particles.” Powder Technol., 162(1), 1–15.
Tchobanoglous, G., and Burton, F. L. (1991). Wastewater engineering treatment, disposal, and reuse, 3rd Ed., Metcalf & Eddy, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F. L., and Stensel, H. D. (2003). Wastewater engineering, treatment and reuse, 4th Ed., Metcalf & Eddy, McGraw-Hill, New York.
USEPA. (1991). Markets for scrap tires, Washington, DC.
USEPA. (2004). Guidelines for water reuse, Washington, DC.
USEPA. (2005). Profile of the rubber and plastics industry, Washington, DC.
Visvanathan, C., Aim, R. B., and Parameshwaran, K. (2000). “Membrane separation bioreactors for wastewater treatment.” Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., 30(1), 1–48.
Yamammoto, K., Hiasa, H., Mahmood, T., and Matsuo, T. (1989). “Direct solid liquid separation using hollow fiber membrane in an activated sludge aeration tank.” Water Sci. Technol., 21(4–5), 43–54.
Zhang, T. C., and Bishop, P. L. (1994). “Density, porosity, and pore structure of biofilms.” Water Res., 28(11), 2267–2277.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jan 22, 2013
Accepted: Sep 3, 2013
Published online: Sep 5, 2013
Published in print: Jan 1, 2014
Discussion open until: Feb 5, 2014
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.