Direct-Push Delivery of Dye Tracers for Direct Documentation of Solute Distribution in Clay Till
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 138, Issue 1
Abstract
Methods for effective delivery of remediation amendments for in situ remediation of contaminated clay till sites are sought. The capabilities of direct-push delivery are promising but not yet scientifically documented. Therefore, a field study of direct-push delivery was carried out at an uncontaminated, naturally fractured, basal clay till site ( ) in 2008–2009. A mixture of tracers (brilliant blue, fluorescein, and Rhodamine WT), the characteristics of which are comparable to several current remediation amendments, was delivered in aqueous solution at pressures of bar at several locations and depth intervals [2.5–9.5 m below surface (b.s.)], representing both the vadose and saturated zones. Extensive coring to 12 m b.s. and excavation to 5 m b.s. were carried out to identify the lateral and vertical extent of tracer distribution. A tracer distribution radius of minimum 1 m was achieved at all depths. Close vertical spacing of delivery points (10–25 cm) provided good vertical distribution without significant merging of individual delivery propagation paths. The results are promising with regard to achieving adequate distribution of remediation amendments in clay till.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The presented research is part of a collaborative research project funded by the Capital Region of Denmark, the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) through a Ph.D. scholarship, and Innovative Remediation and Assessment Technologies for Contaminated Soil and Groundwater (REMTEC, Danish Council for Strategic Research). We thank Jens Schaarup, Mona Refstrup, and Bent Skov at DTU Environment; Kresten Andersen and Nina Tuxen at Orbicon; Carsten Bagge Jensen and Henriette Kerrn-Jespersen at the Capital Region of Denmark; and Knud Erik Klint and Bertel Nilsson at GEUS for their contribution to the project. Ejlskov A/S performed the direct-push deliveries, so thanks also go to Sune Andersen, GeoProbe operator, and Palle Ejlskov.
References
Bourne, C. S., Parker, B. L., and Cherry, J. A. (2001). “Destruction of TCE DNAPL using KMnO4: Delivery with direct-push technology and distribution under density driven advection and diffusion.” Proc., 2001 Int. Containment & Remediation Technol. Conf. and Exhibition, Institute for International Cooperative Environmental Research, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
Broholm, M. M., Broholm, K., and Arvin, E. (1999). “Diffusion of heterocyclic compounds from a complex mixture of coal-tar compounds in natural clayey till.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 39(3–4), 227–247.
Bures, G. (2009). “Hydraulic fracturing versus injection delivery techniques: Vanquishing the “direct push” myth.” Proc., 2009 Hydraulic Fracturing Conf., American Institute of Professional Geologists (AIPG), Thornton, CO.
Chambon, J. C. C., Broholm, M. M., Binning, P. J., and Bjerg, P. L. (2010). “Modelling multi-component transport and enhanced anaerobic dechlorination processes in a single fracture—clay matrix system.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 112(1–4), 77–90.
Chapman, S. W., and Parker, B. L. (2005). “Plume persistence due to aquitard back diffusion following dense nonaqueous phase liquid source removal or isolation.” Water Resour. Res., 41(12), 1–16.
Cherry, J. A. (1989). “Hydrogeologic contaminant behaviour in fractured and unfractured clayey deposits in Canada.” Proc., Int. Symp. on Contaminant Transp. in Groundwater, H. E. Kobus and W. Kinzelbach, eds., Balkema, Netherlands.
Christiansen, C. M., et al. (2008). “Characterization and quantification of pneumatic fracturing effects at a clay till site.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 42(2), 570–576.
Christiansen, C. M., et al. (2010). “Comparison of delivery methods for enhanced in situ remediation in clay till.” Ground Water Monit. Rem., 30(4), 107–122.
Christiansen, C., and Wood, J. S. A. (2006). “Environmental fracturing in clay till.” Master thesis, Dept. of Environmental Engineering (formerly; Institute of Environment and Resources), Technical Univ. of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
Cooper, E., Livadas, A., and Hanna, T. (2008). “The realities of direct push injection into difficult lithologies.” Proc., Sixth Int. Conf. on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
Cundy, A. B., Hopkinson, L., and Whitby, R. L. D. (2008). “Use of iron-based technologies in contaminated land and groundwater remediation: A review.” Sci. Total Environ., 400(1–3), 42–51.
Danish National Survey and Cadastre (DNSC). (2010). “Kortforsyningen formidler geodata via internettet.” 〈www.kortforsyningen.dk〉 (Mar. 10, 2010, in Danish).
European Environment Agency (EEA). (2007). “Progress in management of contaminated sties.” Rep. CSI 015, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Field, M. S., Wilhelm, R. G., Quinlan, J. F., and Aley, T. J. (1995). “An assessment of the potential adverse properties of fluorescent tracer dyes used for groundwater tracing.” Environ. Monitor. Assess, 38(1), 75–96.
Freeze, R. A., and McKay, D. B. (1997). “A framework for assessing risk reduction due to DNAPL mass removal from low permeability soils.” Ground Water, 35(1), 111–123.
GeoProbe. (2011). “Pressure activated injection probe, product sheet.” 〈http://geoprobe.com/sites/default/files/pdfs/injection_probe.pdf〉 (March 13, 2011).
Germán-Heins, J., and Flury, M. (2000). “Sorption of brilliant blue FCF in soils as affected by pH and ionic strength.” Geoderma, 97(1–2), 87–101.
Hønning, J., Broholm, M. M., and Bjerg, P. L. (2007). “Quantification of potassium permanganate consumption and PCE consumption in subsurface materials.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 90(3–4), 221–239.
Johnson, R. L., Cherry, J. A., and Pankow, J. F. (1989). “Diffusive contaminant transport in natural clay: A field example and implication for clay-lined waste disposal sites.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 23(3), 340–349.
Jørgensen, P. R., Klint, K. E. S., and Kistrup, J. P. (2003). “Monitoring well interception with fractures in clayey till.” Ground Water, 41(6), 772–779.
Kasteel, R., Burkhardt, M., Giesa, S., and Vereecken, H. (2005). “Characterization of field tracer transport using high-resolution images.” Vadose Zone J., 4(1), 101–111.
Khan, F. I., Husain, T., and Hejazi, R. (2004). “An overview and analysis of site remediation technologies.” J. Environ. Manage., 71(2), 95–122.
Kjærsgaard, P. (2006a). “Remediation program for Gl. Kongevej 39 [a site in Copenhagen, Denmark].” Documentation rep. prepared for the County of Copenhagen, Orbicon, Ballerup, Denmark (in Danish).
Kjærsgaard, P. (2006b). “Remediation program for Vesterbrogade 116 [a site in Copenhagen, Denmark].” Documentation rep. prepared for the County of Copenhagen, Orbicon, Ballerup, Denmark (in Danish).
Klint, K. E. S. (2001). “Fractures in glacigene diamict deposits; origin and distribution.” Ph.D. thesis, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Klint, K. E. S., and Gravesen, P. (1999). “Fractures and biopores in Weichselian clayey till aquitards at Flakkebjerg, Denmark.” Nord. Hydrol., 30(4/5), 267–284.
Kovacich, M. S., Beck, D. R., Rich, P., Zack, M., and Cannaert, M. (2006). “Direct-push injection and circulation biobarrier to remediate a TCE groundwater plume.” Proc., Fifth Int. Conf. on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
Lemming, G., et al. (2010). “Environmental impacts of remediation of a trichloroethene-contaminated site: Life cycle assessment of remediation alternatives.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 44(23), 9163–9169.
Markesic, S. J. (2000). “Field performance assessment of pneumatic fracturing for permeability enhancement of clay deposits.” Masters thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
McKay, L., Fredericia, J., Lenczewski, M., Morthorst, J., and Klint, K. E. S. (1999). “Spatial variability of contaminant transport in a fractured till, Avedøre, Denmark.” Nord. Hydrol., 30(4–5), 333–360.
Mossing, C., and Bjerg, P. L. (2003). “Remediation of chlorinated solvents via enhanced reductive dechlorination—Jægersborg Allé, Gentofte [a site in Denmark].” Environmental Project No. 833: Rep. prepared for the Danish Environmental Protection Agency’s Technology Program for Soil and Groundwater Contamination, COWI and DTU Environment, Lyngby, Denmark (in Danish).
Murdoch, L., and Wilson, D. (1994). “Alternative methods for fluid delivery and recovery.” USEPA/625/R-94/003, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
Nelson, D., et al. (2008). “PRB installation using direct-push techniques to guide placement.” Proc., Sixth Int. Conf. on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
Nielsen, M. H., Styczen, M. E., Petersen, J. C. T., Hansen, S., and Ernstsen, V. (2010). “Field study of preferential flow pathways in and between drain trenches.” Vadose Zone J., 9(4), 1073–1079.
O’Hara, S. K., Parker, B. L., Jørgensen, P. R., and Cherry, J. A. (2000). “Trichloroethene DNAPL flow and mass distribution in naturally fractured clay: Evidence of aperture variability.” Water Resour. Res., 36(1), 135–147.
Parker, B. L., Gillham, R. W., and Cherry, J. A. (1994). “Difffusive disappearance of immiscible-phase organic liquids in fractured geologic media.” Ground Water, 32(5), 805–820.
Parker, B. L., McWhorter, D. B., and Cherry, J. A. (1997). “Diffusive loss of non-aqueous phase organic solvents from idealized fracture networks in geologic media.” Ground Water, 35(6), 1077–1088.
Riis, C., Christensen, A. G., Bjerg, P. L., Christensen, S. B., Broholm, M. M., and Scheutz, C. (2006a). “Pneumatic fracturing. Documentation of pilot field trial.” 〈http://www.er.dtu.dk/publications/fulltext/2006/MR2006-088_hovedrapport.pdf〉 (Mar. 10, 2010, in Danish).
Riis, C., Christiansen, C., Broholm, M. M., and Bjerg, P. L. (2006b). “Pneumatic fracturing. Pilot field trial at Vadsbyvej 16A, Hedehusene. Supplementary investigations.” 〈http://www.er.dtu.dk/publications/fulltext/2006/MR2006-222.pdf〉 (Mar. 10, 2010, in Danish).
Sabatini, D. A., and Al Austin, T. (1991). “Characteristics of Rhodamine WT and fluorescein as adsorbing groundwater-tracers.” Ground Water, 29(3), 341–345.
Scheutz, C., et al. (2010). “Field evaluation of biological enhanced reductive dechlorination of chloroethenes in clayey till.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 44(13), 5134–5141.
Schnegg, P. A., and Doerfliger, N. (1997). “An inexpensive flowthrough field fluorometer.” Proc., 6e Colloque d’hydrologie en pays calcaire et milieu fissuré, Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon, France.
Schnell, D. (2006). “Pneumatic fracturing and media injection adjacent to and within structures/utilities.” Proc., Fifth Int. Conf. on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
Siegrist, R., Lowe, K., Murdoch, L. C., Case, T. L., and Pickering, D. A. (1999). “In situ oxidation by fracture emplaced reactive solids.” J. Environ. Eng., 125(5), 429–440.
Sladen, J. A., and Wrigley, W. (1983). “Geotechnical properties of lodgement till—A review.” Chapter 8, Glacial geology—An introduction for engineers and earth scientists, Vol. 1, N. Eyles, ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
Tsitonaki, A., Andersen, K., and Broholm, M. M. (2009). “MST Persulfate Baldersbækvej 5 [a site in Denmark].” Status Rep. for 1. Injection Round Prepared for the Capital Region of Denmark, Orbicon, Ballerup, Denmark (in Danish).
Tuxen, N. (2008). “Remediation program, Vadsbyvej 16A, Taastrup [a site in Denmark].” Rep. prepared for the Capital Region of Denmark, Orbicon, Ballerup, Denmark (in Danish).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2004). “Cleaning up the nation’s waste sites: Markets and technology trends.” EPA 542-R-04-015, Washington, DC.
Walden, T. (1997). “Summary of processes, human exposures, and technologies applicable to lowpermeability soils.” Ground Water Monitor. Remed., 17(1), 63–69.
Ward, R. S., Williams, A. T., Barker, J. A., Berewerton, L. J., and Gale, I. N. (1998). “Groundwater tracer tests: A review and guidelines for their use in British aquifers.” Rep. WD9819; British Geological Survey, London.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 138 • Issue 1 • January 2012
Pages: 27 - 37
Copyright
© 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 12, 2010
Accepted: Jun 22, 2011
Published online: Jun 24, 2011
Published in print: Jan 1, 2012
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.