Improving the Mechanical Performance of Timber Railway Sleepers with Carbon Fabric Reinforcement: An Experimental and Numerical Study
Publication: Journal of Composites for Construction
Volume 26, Issue 1
Abstract
This paper proposes an externally bonded carbon fabric system to mitigate the causes of timber sleeper deterioration. Therefore, three methods of carbon fabric application for timber sleeper reinforcement, namely, carbon fabric-wrapped timber sleepers (CWT), one-layer carbon fabric timber sleepers with anchors (OCT), and two-layer carbon fabric timber sleepers with anchors (TCT), are studied and compared with conventional timber sleepers (CTS). Modal analysis is performed to obtain the sleeper damping ratios, and three bending moment tests are conducted to compare their load capacities. Furthermore, finite-element method (FEM) modeling is developed to compare the stress levels within each carbon fabric-strengthened sleeper. The bending moment test results indicate a high improvement in the load–displacement behavior of timber sleepers in the presence of carbon fabric, especially for the CWT, which shows a 55% improvement compared with the CTS, followed by the TCT and OCT, which show 50% and 33% improvements. Wrapped and two-layer and one-layer anchored systems have damping ratios of 0.21, 0.26, and 0.18, respectively, which are higher than that of conventional timber sleepers, at 0.17. The FEM results show that the stress levels of the timber sleepers with carbon fabric-strengthened systems decrease compared to CTS. Finally, a desirability function is developed to select the optimum carbon fabric system based on the load–displacement behavior, damping ratio, and insertion loss, which indicates a two-layer carbon fabric reinforcing system.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This paper has been supported by China Academy of Railway Science Foundation (Grant No. 2020YJ081).
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
- A1–3
- accelerometers 1 to 3;
- A
- average;
- a1 & a5
- translation of the center of the pixel;
- (a)CFRP
- acceleration of carbon fabric-strengthened sleepers;
- (a)0
- acceleration of conventional timber sleepers;
- b
- width;
- D
- overall desirability function;
- D
- maximum deflection;
- dj
- desirability function;
- E
- modulus of elasticity;
- fRF
- reaction force;
- G
- shear modulus;
- I
- second moment of area;
- L
- distance between supports;
- LP
- length of carbon fabric reinforcement;
- m
- number of associated parameters;
- max fj
- highest values of the jth response;
- min fj
- lowest values of the jth response;
- P
- load;
- Pul
- ultimate load;
- t
- thickness;
- tj
- weighting factor of the jth response;
- yj
- current response of the considered parameter;
- σmax S
- maximum stress level;
- ɛ
- strain levels;
- σmax CFRP
- maximum stress level of carbon fiber;
- τyx
- maximum shear stress;
- σyy
- maximum normal stress; and
- standard deviation.
References
Abadi, T., L. L. Pen, A. Zervos, and W. Powrie. 2019. “Effect of sleeper interventions on railway track performance.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (4): 04019009. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002022.
Abdelouahed, T. 2006. “Improved theoretical solution for interfacial stresses in concrete beams strengthened with FRP plate.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 43 (14–15): 4154–4174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2005.03.074.
Andor, K., A. Lengyel, R. Polgár, T. Fodor, and Z. Karácsonyi. 2015. “Experimental and statistical analysis of spruce timber beams reinforced with CFRP fabric.” Constr. Build. Mater. 99: 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.09.026.
Barnes, R. A., and G. C. Mays. 1999. “Fatigue performance of concrete beams strengthened with CFRP plates.” J. Compos. Constr. 3 (2): 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(1999)3:2(63).
Bayramov, F., C. Taşdemir, and M. A. Taşdemir. 2004. “Optimisation of steel fibre reinforced concretes by means of statistical response surface method.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (6): 665–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(03)00161-6.
Borri, A., M. Corradi, and A. Grazini. 2005. “A method for flexural reinforcement of old wood beams with CFRP materials.” Composites, Part B 36 (2): 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2004.04.013.
CNS (China National Standard). 2013. Code for design of strengthening concrete structures. GB 50367-2013. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press.
Crawford, R. H. 2009. “Greenhouse gas emissions embodied in reinforced concrete and timber railway sleepers.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (10): 3885–3890. https://doi.org/10.1021/es8023836.
Davalos, J. F., M. G. Zipfel, and P. Qiao. 1999. “Feasibility study of prototype GFRP-reinforced wood railroad crosstie.” J. Compos. Constr. 3 (2): 92–99. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(1999)3:2(92).
de Jesus, A. M. P., J. M. T. Pinto, and J. J. L. Morais. 2012. “Analysis of solid wood beams strengthened with CFRP laminates of distinct lengths.” Constr. Build. Mater. 35: 817–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.124.
de la Rosa García, P., A. C. Escamilla, and M. Nieves González García. 2013. “Bending reinforcement of timber beams with composite carbon fiber and basalt fiber materials.” Composites, Part B 55: 528–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.07.016.
Elanchezhian, C., B. V. Ramnath, and J. Hemalatha. 2014. “Mechanical behaviour of glass and carbon fibre reinforced composites at varying strain rates and temperatures.” Procedia Mater. Sci. 6: 1405–1418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.120.
Esmaeili, M., S. Ataei, and M. Siahkouhi. 2020. “A case study of dynamic behaviour of short span concrete slab bridge reinforced by tire-derived aggregates as sub-ballast.” Int. J. Rail Transp. 8 (1): 80–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/23248378.2019.1613938.
Esmaeili, M., and M. Siahkouhi. 2019. “Tire-derived aggregate layer performance in railway bridges as a novel impact absorber: Numerical and field study.” Struct. Control Health Monit. 26 (10): e2444. https://doi.org/10.1002/stc.2444.
Esveld, C., and C. Esveld. 2001. Modern railway track. Zaltbommel, Netherlands: MRT-Productions.
Ferdous, W., A. D. Almutairi, Y. Huang, and Y. Bai. 2018. “Short-term flexural behaviour of concrete filled pultruded GFRP cellular and tubular sections with pin-eye connections for modular retaining wall construction.” Compos. Struct. 206: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2018.08.025.
Ferdous, W., and A. Manalo. 2014. “Failures of mainline railway sleepers and suggested remedies—Review of current practice.” Eng. Fail. Anal. 44: 17–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.04.020.
Ferdous, W., A. Manalo, T. Aravinthan, and G. Van Erp. 2016. “Properties of epoxy polymer concrete matrix: Effect of resin-to-filler ratio and determination of optimal mix for composite railway sleepers.” Constr. Build. Mater. 124: 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.111.
Galal, K., H. Seif ElDin, and L. Tirca. 2012. “Flexural performance of steel girders retrofitted using CFRP materials.” J. Compos. Constr. 16 (3): 265–276. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000264.
Gentile, C., D. Svecova, and S. H. Rizkalla. 2002. “Timber beams strengthened with GFRP bars: Development and applications.” J. Compos. Constr. 6 (1): 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(2002)6:1(11).
Ghorbani, A., and S. Erden. 2013. “Polymeric composite railway sleepers.” In Uluslar ArasibRayli Sistemler Muhendisligi Sempozyumu (ISERSE’13), 9–11. Turkey: Karabuk University Engineering Faculty.
Hadigheh, S., R. McDougall, C. Wiseman, and L. Reid. 2021. “Evaluation of composite action in cross laminated timber-concrete composite beams with CFRP reinforcing bar and plate connectors using digital image correlation (DIC).” Eng. Struct. 232: 111791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111791.
Hagaman, B., and R. McAlpine. 1991. “ROA timber sleeper development project.” In Proc., Conf. on Railway Engineering: Demand Management of Assets, 233–237. Barton, ACT: Institution of Engineers, Australia.
Jing, G., J. Wang, H. Wang, and M. Siahkouhi. 2020. “Numerical investigation of the behavior of stone ballast mixed by steel slag in ballasted railway track.” Constr. Build. Mater. 262: 120015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120015.
Jing, G., D. Yunchang, R. You, and M. Siahkouhi. 2021. “Comparison study of crack propagation in rubberized and conventional prestressed concrete sleepers using digital image correlation.” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part F 09544097211020595. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544097211020595.
Kaewunruen, S. 2013. “In situ performance of a complex urban turnout grillage system using fibre-reinforced foamed urethane (FFU) bearers.” In Proc., 10th World Congress on Rail Research, 25–28. Australia: WCRR.
Kaewunruen, S. 2014. “Monitoring in-service performance of fibre-reinforced foamed urethane sleepers/bearers in railway urban turnout systems.” Struct. Monit. Maint. 1 (1): 131–157. https://doi.org/10.12989/smm.2014.1.1.131.
Kaewunruen, S., L. C. Lopes, and M. P. Papaelias. 2018. “Georisks in railway systems under climate uncertainties by different types of sleeper/crosstie materials.” Lowland Technol. Int. 20 (1): 77–86.
Kaewunruen, S., and A. Remennikov. 2007. Experimental and numerical studies of railway prestressed concrete sleepers under static and impact loads. Australia: University of Wollongong.
Kaewunruen, S., R. You, and M. Ishida. 2017. “Composites for timber-replacement bearers in railway switches and crossings.” Infrastructures 2 (4): 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures2040013.
LoPresti, J. 2005. Fiberglass wrapped tie performance evaluation report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation.
Manalo, A. 2011. Behaviour of fibre composite sandwich structures: A case study on railway sleeper application. Toowoomba, Australia: University of Southern Queensland.
Mastali, M., A. Dalvand, A. R. Sattarifard, and M. Illikainen. 2018. “Development of eco-efficient and cost-effective reinforced self-consolidation concretes with hybrid industrial/recycled steel fibers.” Constr. Build. Mater. 166: 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.147.
Neubauerová, P. 2012. “Timber beams strengthened by carbon–fiber reinforced lamellas.” Procedia Eng. 40: 292–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.07.097.
Nicoletta, T., M. Valdés, B. De Nicolo, and M. Fragiacomo. 2017. “Grading of low-quality wood for use in structural elements.” Wood Civ. Eng. 5–24.
Pang, Y., S. N. Lingamanaik, B. K. Chen, and S. F. Yu. 2020. “Measurement of deformation of the concrete sleepers under different support conditions using non-contact laser speckle imaging sensor.” Eng. Struct. 205: 110054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.110054.
Potluri, R., and K. K. Ketha. 2015. “Comparison between GFRP and CFRP composite power take-off shaft in helicopters for prescribed torque and geometrical constraints.” J. Mater. Sci. Mech. Eng. 2 (3): 214–219.
Reu, P. 2014. “All about speckles: Speckle size measurement.” Exp. Tech. 38 (6): 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1111/ext.12110.
Rothlisberger, E. 2008. “History and development of wooden sleeper.” Accessed July 25, 2021. http://www.corbat-holding.ch/documents/showFile.asp.
Sadeghi, J., and P. Barati. 2012. “Comparisons of the mechanical properties of timber, steel and concrete sleepers.” Struct. Infrastruct. Eng. 8 (12): 1151–1159. https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2010.507706.
Saleh, A., and A. Yusuf. 2010. “Flexural strengthening of timber beams using glass fibre reinforced polymer.” Electron. J. Struct. Eng. 10: 45–56. https://doi.org/https://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l03-069.
Schneider, P., R. Bolmsvik, and J. C. Nielsen. 2011. “In situ performance of a ballasted railway track with under sleeper pads.” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part F 225 (3): 299–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041301710392479.
Sengsri, P., C. Ngamkhanong, A. L. O. de Melo, and S. Kaewunruen. 2020. “Experimental and numerical investigations into dynamic modal parameters of fiber-reinforced foamed urethane composite beams in railway switches and crossings.” Vibration 3 (3): 174–188. https://doi.org/10.3390/vibration3030014.
Siahkouhi, M., X. Li, V. Markine, and G. Jing. 2021. “Experimental and numerical study on the mechanical behavior of Kunststof Lankhorst product (KLP) sleepers.” Scientia Iranica. 28 (5): 2568–2581. https://doi.org/10.24200/SCI.2021.57165.5096.
SSICO. 2021. “Products data sheet.” Accessed July 25, 2021. https://www.skotxwb.com/tanxianweibu/09070203.shtml.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2009. Railway applications—Track–concrete sleepers and bearers—Part 2: Prestressed monoblock sleepers. UNE EN 13230-2:2016. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
Ticoalu, A., T. Aravinthan, and W. Karunasena. 2008. “An investigation on the stiffness of timber sleepers for the design of fibre composite sleepers.” In Proc., 20th Australasian Conf. on the Mechanics of Structures and Materials, 865–870. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Triantafillou, T. C., and N. Deskovic. 1992. “Prestressed FRP sheets as external reinforcement of wood members.” J. Struct. Eng. 118 (5): 1270–1284. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1992)118:5(1270).
TYWP. 2021. “Product data sheet.” Accessed July 25, 2021. http://www.fctyff.com/product/yjflzxe85/.
Van Cao, V., and T. Q. Nguyen. 2019. “Effects of CFRP/GFRP flexural retrofitting on reducing seismic damage of reinforced concrete frames: A comparative study.” Asian J. Civ. Eng. 20 (8): 1071–1087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-019-00173-7.
Van Erp, G., and M. Mckay. 2013. “Recent Australian developments in fibre composite railway sleepers.” Electron. J. Struct. Eng. 13 (1): 62–66.
You, R., K. Goto, C. Ngamkhanong, and S. Kaewunruen. 2019. “Nonlinear finite element analysis for structural capacity of railway prestressed concrete sleepers with rail seat abrasion.” Eng. Fail. Anal. 95: 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2018.08.026.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Composites for Construction
Volume 26 • Issue 1 • February 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Apr 22, 2021
Accepted: Oct 4, 2021
Published online: Nov 24, 2021
Published in print: Feb 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Apr 24, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Mohammad Siahkouhi, Xiaodong Han, Meng Wang, Allan Manalo, Guoqing Jing, Development and performance evaluation of self-healing concrete railway sleepers using different size PU tubes, Engineering Structures, 10.1016/j.engstruct.2023.115920, 283, (115920), (2023).
- M. Hassan Esmaeili, Hamed Norouzi, Fateme Niazi, Evaluation of mechanical and performance characteristics of a new composite railway sleeper made from recycled plastics, mineral fillers and industrial wastes, Composites Part B: Engineering, 10.1016/j.compositesb.2023.110581, 254, (110581), (2023).
- Ruilin You, Jijun Wang, Na Ning, Meng Wang, Jiashuo Zhang, The Typical Damage Form and Mechanism of a Railway Prestressed Concrete Sleeper, Materials, 10.3390/ma15228074, 15, 22, (8074), (2022).
- Mohammad Siahkouhi, Xinjie Li, Xiaodong Han, Sakdirat Kaewunruen, Guoqing Jing, Experimental and finite element assessments of the fastening system of fiber-reinforced foamed urethane (FFU) composite sleepers, Engineering Failure Analysis, 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106693, 141, (106693), (2022).
- Shan Gao, Linqiang Zhou, Lanhui Guo, Man Xu, Shaobo Kang, Mechanical performance degradation of recycled glulam under simulated marine atmosphere, Construction and Building Materials, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128443, 346, (128443), (2022).
- Meng Wang, Xiaodong Han, Guoqing Jing, Haoyu Wang, Experimental and numerical analysis on mechanical behaviour of steel turnout sleeper, Construction and Building Materials, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127133, 329, (127133), (2022).