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Few studies have documented effective safety performance in the high hazard construction industry and examined why some companies are able to experience success in reducing injuries while their peers have not. This paper reviews the literature related to safety performance in the construction sector. Several questions are raised by this research: What role does management play in improving safety performance in the construction sector? What organizational factors are responsible for effective safety performance? The data in this research suggests that safety and health programs can only be successful if program elements such as management commitment, employee involvement, hazard anticipation, hazard abatement, and training are present.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) (2006), there were a total of 5,703 occupational injuries recorded in all industries. The construction sector accounted for 22.5 percent of the total fatalities that occurred in all industries, with a nonfatal incident rate of 11.0 and a 12.9 rate of fatal occupational injuries (BLS 2006). Statistics indicate 6 percent of the industrial workforce in the United States is employed by the construction industry, but 20 percent of all industrial worker fatalities are in the construction industry (Hinze 1997). As noted previously, Hinze (1997) proposed that although some construction leaders claim that construction has more inherent hazards than other industries, other experts suggest that construction site hazards can be reduced or that they need not be part of construction work. However, in the past three decades the history of safety performance has indicated occupational injuries and fatalities have been reduced by 50 percent (Hinze 1997). Preventing occupational deaths, injuries, and illness should be, and is, a major concern for any employer, regardless of industry. However, the need for attention and action may be greater in the construction sector than in other industries. This greater need for awareness and action is a result of the disproportionately high number of occupational deaths and injuries of employees working in the construction sector (see Figures 1–3). The significance and value of all human life are immeasurable. One hundred and sixty-five people die every day from occupational diseases, sixteen die every day from work-related injuries, 36,400 suffer nonfatal injuries, and 3,200 become ill from occupational diseases every day in the United States (CBI 2001). The financial costs associated with these injuries and illnesses range from $160 to $240 billion a year (Cullen 2002). The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) reported the following data regarding construction injuries and fatalities (CDC and NIOSH n.d.).
Fig. 1. Incidence rates of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses in private industry and in high-risk industrial sectors, 1992-2001 [During 1992-2001, the rates of total recordable injuries and illnesses in construction and agriculture exceeded those for all private industry by an average of 37% and 22%, respectively. However, the rates all decreased by similar percentages during this period—36% for all private industry, 40% for construction, and 37% for agriculture, forestry, and fishing (BLS 2002)]
Fig. 2. Fatal occupational injury rates by industry division, 2002 [Fatal occupational injury rates in 2002 were highest in mining (23.5 per 100,000 workers), agriculture, forestry, and fishing (22.7), construction (12.2), and transportation and public utilities (11.3). The rate for all private industry was 4.2 per 100,000 workers (BLS 2003)]
Fig. 3. Construction sector fatalities 2003–2006 (Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics)
Falls caused 3,859 construction worker fatalities (25.6 percent) between 1980 and 1993. Fifteen percent of workers’ compensation costs are spent on construction injuries. Specific prevention recommendations have included: site-specific evaluation of potential fall hazards; implementation of fall protection programs; proper erection, maintenance, and use of access equipment (e.g., scaffolds and ladders); installation and maintenance of appropriate barriers (e.g., guard rails and/or covers on floor openings); and proper selection and use of fall restraint and fall arrest systems in situations where exposure to falls cannot be eliminated. Considering the disproportionate amount of worker-related fatalities and injuries experienced in the construction industry as reported by NIOSH, it is obvious that employers in this industry should work to reduce occupational deaths, injuries, and illnesses (CDC and NIOSH n.d.). The numbers certainly indicate that the cost of workplace injuries in both human lives and economic terms can be far-reaching. The 2003 edition of “Injury Facts” indicated that there were 4,900 occupational deaths and 3.7 million disabling injuries at the workplace in that year. Of the reported 4,900 occupational deaths, a disproportionate amount (1,150) occurred in the construction industry. However, this represented a slight decline in workplace deaths since 2001, from 5,300. Despite the slight decline in fatalities, much work needs to be done in reducing these alarming statistics (Jaspers and Naso 2003). In terms of controlling the direct costs of work-related injuries such as worker compensation premiums and indirect costs like lost work time and damaged products in the construction industry associated with workplace injuries can be the difference between a lucrative construction company and one that is forced into economic hardship (Findley et al. 2004).
Davies and Tomasin (1990) indicated several reasons why the injury and fatality rate of the construction sector compared to the incident rate of the manufacturing sector is much higher. Recent times have seen a rapid expansion of the commercial and residential construction industry, along with the influx of an immigrant population. BLS reported that death rates in the construction industry were at their highest level in 2000 since 1992, up 6 percent to 1,225 (Jaspers and Naso 2002). Having inexperienced workers could have further contributed to the high injury and illness rate in the construction sector (Winn et al. 2000).
Researchers Davies and Tomasin (1990) suggested that it is difficult for construction contractors to develop safety awareness among employees due to high turnover in the workforce. Developing standardized work practices can be a challenge due to the complexity of the construction industry, which consists of many contractors and subcontractors responsible for completing a large project. Some small contractors in the construction industry lack the theoretical knowledge to comply with occupational safety and health legislation (Davies and Tomasin 1990). Winn et al. (2000) suggested that having inexperienced workers could have further contributed to the high injury and illness rate in the construction sector.
A qualitative study of workers in the construction sector assessed factors that may contribute to injuries. Several respondents indicated that their employer was only concerned with getting the job done as quickly as possible and paid very little attention to the recognition, evaluation, and control of hazards at the construction site.
The same study also determined that perceived work pressures and employee perceptions may predispose employees to accept injuries as part of the job. NIOSH reported that the primary causes of fatalities in the construction sector include being struck by falling objects, falls from elevations, electrocution, and injuries from heavy motor equipment. According to the data released by the BLS in 2006 1,226 workers in the construction sector died on the job last year. NIOSH reported that each year, electrocutions represent 7 percent of injury-related fatalities (“Construction safety and health” 1997).
Management’s role
Managers and supervisors play a vital role in establishing effective safety and health programs. It is the responsibility of management to take the policy of the organizations and display it through specific actions and behavior. Managers must follow safety rules and procedures established by management, such as wearing personal protective equipment, safety glasses, and hard hats. Welch (2002) indicated that he preferred avoiding the term “manager” during his tenure as CEO at General Electric. Instead he felt that the term “leader” was well suited for the job activities of managers. When employees observe supervisors’ attitudes toward safety, they see a direct reflection of upper management’s commitment to providing a safe and healthful workplace (Hagan et al. 2001). The behaviors of managers and supervisors can be modeled by employees if management sets a good example by following safety and health policy.
Anton (1997) noted that supervisors should be responsible for developing positive attitudes toward safety at the workplace. Supervisors serve as the direct link between top management and employees by sharing, enforcing, and communicating the vision of a safety culture. Supervisors can develop employee attitudes toward safety in several ways. First, they should readily accept and become advocates of management vision and commitment regarding the company safety program. Second, supervisors should never violate company safety rules or condone employees doing so. Supervisors unknowingly serve as mentors to employees in the workplace; as a result, their actions and behaviors are observed by other employees at all times. Anton (1997) notes:
If the supervisor disregards the safety program, both the supervisor and the company lose credibility in the eye of the employee. The supervisor must continually show, through action and attitude, that he or she is just as serious about the employee’s safety as the company is. Furthermore, the supervisor must constantly remind employees of the benefits of working safely. (p. 12)
In the construction industry the duties of the site superintendent and the foremen are critical to establishing an effective safety culture and program. The foremen should win the respect of employees by demonstrating commitment to safety in the workplace by discussing the company’s mission to protect the well being of every employee. Researchers Findley et al. (2004) conducted a study that established a direct link between safety practices and processes and the number of full-time safety professionals working at a company. The companies with the higher percentage of full-time professional employees were more likely to report, track, and investigate incidents as well as have some of the major program elements in place.
Modeling behaviors
Having the first line supervisor actively involved in a safety program is essential to establishing a safety program. First line supervisors usually have the most experience and training regarding the nature of the job and usually are aware of the hazards associated with it. The first line supervisor usually sets an example for other employees. If, for example, the supervisors neglects to wear a hard hat in construction areas, employees working under the supervisor’s direction usually neglect wear one also (Hagan et al. 2001).
According to social learning theorist Albert Banduar, people learn from observing the actions and outcomes of others’ behaviors as well as from the concept of modeling. Modeling can be seen in two different ways: live or symbolic. The live model is best described as the live actual observerable behaviors displayed by an individual. The symbolic model is described as viewing the actions or behaviors of an individual in a medium, such as videotapes, and television actors. Behaviors can be partly learned through modeling (see ⟨http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/∼lynda̱abbott/Social.html⟩).
For example, employees can observe the manager or supervisor following safety work practices and wearing personal protective equipment when working with or near mobile cranes, material hoists, elevated working surfaces, excavation, demolition, steel erection, etc. Banduar indicated four ideal conditions that better enable individuals to model expected behaviors of others (http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/∼lynda̱abbott/Social.html).
1.
Attention: the observer must observe in detail the actions and behaviors of the model;
2.
Retention: the displayed behaviors must be remembered by the observer; this process is strengthened if the behavior is retained;
3.
Reproduction: the repetition of the expected behavior increased the observer’s ability to successfully replicate the behavior displayed by the model; and
4.
Motivation: the observer has to be self-motivated to replicate what he or she has observed, and reproduce the desired behavior
Methodology
A literature review providing background information from peer-reviewed journals was completed by using the Indiana University library system. The ABI/INFORM and EBSCO databases were used as well as searching under individual journals for appropriate articles. The literature review was an attempt to examine leadership’s role of safety performance in high hazard industries. Data from the BLS gives general information on the injuries in the construction sector. This information is detailed as incident rates and total number of occurrences.
Conclusion
A study conducted by noted safety researcher J. Mason (1999) examined the relationship between safety performance in the construction industry and total quality management. The purpose of Mason’s study was to determine if firms using integrated total quality management principles experienced more effective safety and health practices than did other construction companies that practiced fewer total quality management principles. The following conclusions were drawn from the study. Mason found that companies that used total quality management principles experienced better safety performance than companies that did not.
It should be clear from this review that there is a need to increase awareness in the construction sector about the role organizational leaders play safety performance. The data in this research clearly points out that safety and health programs can only be successful if the program elements such as management commitment, employee involvement, hazard anticipation, hazard abatement, training and program review are present. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1973 clearly states that it is the responsibility of the management and leadership to ensure a safe workplace. According to the National Safety Counsel Safety Culture and Effective Management, “It is self-evident that people’s actions and behavior can be influenced by their positive or negative perception of the leadership and their administration of safety and health programs.” How employees are perceived to be treated is one of the major indicators of the level of safety performance in a company. Whether employees are considered a valuable resource or as a cost of doing business will, in large part, determine if injury rates are going to be low or high (Slates 2005).
References
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2002). “Survey of occupational injuries and illnesses.” Nonfatal (OSHA recordable) injuries and illnesses. Industry incidence rates and counts, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Safety and Health Statistics Program, Washington, D.C., online: ⟨www.bls.gov/iif/oshsum.htm⟩ (December 2007).
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2003). “Census of fatal occupational injuries. Fatal injuries.” Nonfatal (OSHA recordable) injuries and illnesses. Industry incidence rates and counts, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Safety and Health Statistics Program, Washington, D.C., online: ⟨www.bls.gov/iif/oshcfoi1.htm⟩ (December 2007).
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Hazard (NIOSH). (n.d.) “Traumatic occupational injuries, construction safety.” CDC and NIOSH, online: ⟨http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/constructionsafety/default.html⟩ (December 2007).
Findley, M., Smith, S., Kress, T., Petty, G., and Enoch, K. (2004). “Injury and cost control safety program elements in construction.” Prof. Saf., 14, 18.
Hagan, P. E., Montgomery, J. F., and O’Reilly, J. T. (2001). National Safety Counsel accident prevention manual for business and industry administration and programs, 12th Ed., National Safety Counsel, Itasca, Ill.
Mason, J. (1999). “The impact of total quality management on construction worker safety.” Ph.D. thesis, University of South Florida, Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, No. 01B; 0206.
Kevin Slates, Ed.D., MPA is a clinical assistant professor in the department of Applied Health Science at Indiana University Bloomington. His research interests include program evaluation, policy analysis, health disparities, and exposure assessment.
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