Modeling Bolted Connections in Wood: Review
Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 123, Issue 8
Abstract
This paper presents a discussion of salient issues surrounding the modeling and performance of bolted connections in wood construction. To understand the complex behavior of bolted joints under load, a number of key issues related to connection geometry, material, and mechanics need to be understood. Issues addressed in this paper include the design philosophy of bolted joints (allowable stress and reliability-based design), the influence of connection geometry on behavior under load, and a discussion of previous models that have been used to predict connection performance. Discussions of the key models used to predict connection behavior, including the European yield model, which currently serves as a basis for allowable connection load in U.S. codes, and various failure criteria are presented. Of particular interest is the discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the two-dimensional (2D) models that have been used historically to quantify connection behavior. These are seen relative to developments in three-dimensional (3D) modeling of bolted connections. The contributions of modeling pin/wood contact surfaces to connection behavior prediction are also considered.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
1.
Barrett, J. D., and Foschi, R. O.(1977). “Mode II stress-intensity factors for cracked wood beams.”Engrg. Fracture Mech., 9(2), 371–378.
2.
Bickley, W. G. (1928). “The distribution of stress round a circular hole in a plate.”Philosophical Trans. of the Royal Soc. of London, Royal Society London, London, England, Ser. A227, 383–415.
3.
Boatright, S. W. J., and Garrett, G. G.(1979a). “The effect on knots in the fracture strength of wood. I: A review of methods of assessment.”Holzforschung, 33(3), 68–72.
4.
Boatright, S. W. J., and Garrett, G. G. (1979b). “The effect of knots on the fracture strength of wood. II: A comparative study of methods of assessment, and comments on the application of fracture mechanics to structural timber. Holzforschung, 33(3), 72–77.
5.
Chang, F.-K.(1986). “The effect of pin load distribution on the strength of pin-loaded holes in laminated composites.”J. Compos. Mat., 20(4), 401–408.
6.
Chang, F.-K., and Chang, K.-Y.(1987). “Post-failure analysis of bolted composite joints in tension or shear-out mode failure.”J. Compos. Mat., 21(9), 809–832.
7.
Chang, F.-K., Scott, R. A., and Springer, G. S. (1982). “Strength of mechanically fastened composite joints.”Rep. to Mat. Lab., Air Force Wright Aeronautics Lab., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
8.
Chang, F.-K., Scott, R. A., and Springer, G. S.(1984a). “Design of composite laminates containing pin loaded holes.”J. Compos. Mat., 18, 279–289.
9.
Chang, F.-K., Scott, R. A., and Springer, G. S.(1984b). “Failure of composite laminates containing pin loaded holes-method of solution.”J. Compos. Mat., 18, 255–278.
10.
Chang, F.-K., Scott, R. A., and Springer, G. S.(1984c). “Failure strength of nonlinearly elastic composite laminates containing a pin loaded hole.”J. Compos. Mat., 18, 464–477.
11.
Chiang, Y. J., and Rowlands, R. E.(1991). “Finite element analysis of mixed-mode fracture of bolted joints in composites.”J. Compos. Technol. and Res., 13(4), 227–235.
12.
Cramer, S. M., and Goodman, J. R.(1986). “Failure modeling: a basis for strength prediction of lumber.”Wood and Fiber Sci., 18(3), 446–459.
13.
Cramer, S. M., and McDonald, K. A.(1989). “Predicting lumber tensile stiffness and strength with local grain angle measurements and failure analysis.”Wood and Fiber Sci., 21(4), 393–410.
14.
DeJong, T.(1977). “Stresses around pin-loaded holes in elastically orthotropic or isotropic plates.”J. Compos. Mat., 11, 313–331.
15.
Engineering design of wood (limit states design) CAN/CSA-086.1-M89. (1989). Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.
16.
Eriksson, L. I.(1986). “Contact stresses in bolted joints of composite laminates.”Compos. Struct., 6, 57–75.
17.
Erki, M. A.(1991). “Modelling load-slip behavior of timber joints with mechanical fasteners.”Can. J. Civ. Engrg., Ottawa, Canada, 18, 607–618.
18.
Eshwar, V. A.(1978). “Analysis of clearance fit pin joints.”Int. J. Mech. Sci., 20, 477–484.
19.
“European committee for standardization.” (1990). Rep. CENTC 250/505.12, Eurocode 5, Des. of Timber Struct. I: General Rules and Rules for Build., Brussels, Belgium.
20.
Foschi, R. O., and Bonac, T.(1977). “Load-slip characteristics for connections with common nails.”Wood Sci., 9(3), 118–123.
21.
Hankinson, R. L. (1921). “Investigation of crushing strength of spruce at various angles to the grain.”Air Service Information Circular 3(259): Mat. Section Paper, (130).
22.
Hirai, T.(1983). “Nonlinear load-slip relationship of bolted wood-joints with steel side-members. II: Application of the generalized theory of a beam on an elastic foundation.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 29(12), 839–844.
23.
Hirai, T.(1985). “Nonlinear load-slip relationship of bolted wood-joints with steel side-members. III: Advanced numerical analysis based on the generalized theory of a beam on an elastic foundation.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 31(3), 165–170.
24.
Hirai, T., and Sawada, M.(1982a). “Lateral resistance of bolted wood joints with wood side members loaded parallel to the grain.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 28(11), 695–698.
25.
Hirai, T., and Sawada, M.(1982b). “Lateral resistance of bolted wood-joints with steel side members loaded parallel to the grain.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 28(11), 685–694.
26.
Hirai, T., and Sawada, M.(1982c). “Linear load-slip relationship of bolted joints of glue-laminated lumber.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 28(10), 609–613.
27.
Hirai, T., and Sawada, M.(1982d). “Nominal bearing-stresses of bolted wood-joints at apparent proportional limits.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 28(9), 543–547.
28.
Hu, J. (1990). “Strength analysis of wood single bolted joints,” PhD thesis, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
29.
Hyer, M. W., Klang, E. D., and Cooper, D. E.(1987). “The effect of pin elasticity, clearance and friction on the stresses in a pin-loaded orthotropic plate.”J. Compos. Mat., 21(3), 190–206.
30.
Hyer, M. W., and Lightfoot, M. C. (1979). “Ultimate strength of high-load-capacity composite bolted joints.”Composite materials: testing and design; Proc., 5th Conf. of ASTM STP 674, S. W. Tsai, ed., ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa., 118–136.
31.
Johansen, K. W. (1949). “Theory of timber connections.”Int. Assn. of Bridge and Struct. Engrg., Pub. 9, Bern, Iasbe, Zurich, Switzerland. 249–262.
32.
Johnson, J. A.(1973). “Crack initiation in wood plates.”Wood Sci., 6(2), 151–157.
33.
Jung, J., and Murphy, J. F.(1983). “An investigation of the fracture of butt joints in parallel-laminated veneer.”Wood and Fiber Sci., 15(2), 116–134.
34.
Jurf, R. A., and Vinson, J. R.(1990). “Failure analysis of bolted joints in composite laminates.”Composite materials, testing and design, S. P. Garobo, ed., ASTM, West Conshohocken, 9(1059), 165–190.
35.
Kathiresan, K., Hsu, T. M., and Rudd, J. L. (1984). “Stress and fracture analysis of tapered attachment lugs.”Fracture mechanics; Proc., 15th Symp. of ATM STP 833, ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa., 72–92.
36.
Kim, S. J., and Kim, J. H.(1993). “Finite element analysis of laminated composites with contact constraint by extended interior penalty methods.”Int. J. Numer. Methods in Engrg., 36, 3421–3439.
37.
Klang, E. C., and Hyer, M. W. (1985). “The stress distribution in pin-loaded orthotropic plates.”Rep. VPI-E-85-13, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and Univ., Blacksburg, Va.
38.
Kuenzi, E. W. (1951). “Theoretical design of a nailed or bolted joint under lateral load.”Rep. Forest Products Lab., No. D1951, Forest Products Lab., Madison, Wis.
39.
Larsen, H. J. (1973). “The yield load of bolted and nailed joints.”Proc., IUFRO-5 Conf., 646–654.
40.
Larsen, H. J. (1975). “Determination of load-slip curves for bolts and nails.”Rep. Presented at IUFRO Wood Engrg. Group, (3).
41.
Lhuede, E. H., Gerrard, C. M., and Macindoe, L.(1989). “Comparison of finite element analysis and experimental tests of bolted timber connections loaded perpendicular to the grain.”Proc., 2nd Pacific Timber Engrg., Conf., 1, 315–321.
42.
Liu, J. Y.(1984). “Evaluation of the tensor polynomial strength theory for wood.”J. Compos. Mat., 18(5), 216–226.
43.
Masse, K. I., Salinas, J. J., and Turnbull, J. E. (1989). “Lateral strength and stiffness of single and multiple bolts in glued-laminated timber loaded parallel to the grain.”Rep. Contribution No. C-029, Engrg. and Statistical Res. Ctr., Res. Branch, Engrg. and Statistical Res. Ctr., Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
44.
McLain, T. E., and Patton-Mallory, M. (1988). “Connecting elements.”Load and Resistance Factor Des. for Engineered Wood Constr.—A Prestandard Rep., ASCE, New York, N.Y., 92–112.
45.
McLain, T. E., and Thangjitham, S.(1983). “Bolted wood-joint yield model.”J. Struct. Div., 109(8), 1820–1835.
46.
Mindess, S.(1977). “The fracture of wood in tension parallel to the grain.”Can. J. Civ. Engrg., Ottawa, Canada, 4(4), 412–416.
47.
Murphy, J. F. (1978). “Using fracture mechanics to predict failure of notched wood beams.”Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Wood Fracture, 159–173.
48.
Murphy, J. F. (1979). “Strength of wood beams with end splits.”U.S. Dept. of Agr., Forest Service Res. Paper FPL 347, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Forest Products Lab., Madison, Wis.
49.
Murphy, J. F. (1980). “Strength of wood beams with side cracks.”Proc., IUFRO Timber Engrg., Group, S5.02.
50.
Murphy, J. F.(1986). “Strength and stiffness reduction of large notched beams.”J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 112(9), 1989–2000.
51.
Nahas, M. N.(1986). “Survey of failure and post-failure theories of laminated fiber-reinforced composites.”J. Compos. Technol. and Res., 8(4), 138–153.
52.
National Forest Products Association (NFPA). (1986). National design specification for wood construction, Washington, D.C.
53.
National Forest Products Association (NFPA). (1991). “National design specification for wood construction.”American national standards institute/ANSI/AFPA NDS-1991, American Forest and Paper Association, Washington, D.C.
54.
Norén, B. (1951). Strength of bolted wood joints, especially the influence of washer size on strength and stiffness in single shear. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia.
55.
Norén, B. (1974). “Formulas indicating the strength of mechanical wood joints.”Rep. Swedish Forest Products Res. Lab., Swedish Forest Products Research Laboratory, Ser. B, No. 226, Stockholm, Sweden.
56.
Patton-Mallory, M. (1989). “Yield theory of bolted connections compared with current U.S. design criteria.”Proc., 2nd Pacific Timber Engrg. Conf., Univ. of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, 323–329.
57.
Pellicane, P. J., Bodig, J., and Goodman, J. R.(1982). “Simulation of tensile strength-fracture toughness relationship.”Wood Sci., 14(4), 168–177.
58.
Prabhakaran, R., and Naik, R. A.(1986). “Investigation of non-linear contact for a clearance-fit bolt in a graphite/epoxy laminate.”Compos. Struct., 6, 77–85.
59.
Raghav, R. S. (1989). “Prediction of failure strength of anisotropic materials.”Reference book for composites technology, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, Pa., Vol. 2, 37–48.
60.
Rahman, M. U., Chiang, Y. J., and Rowlands, R. E.(1991). “Stress and failure analysis of double-bolted joints in Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce.”Wood and Fiber Sci., 23(4), 567–589.
61.
Rahman, M. U., and Rowlands, R. E.(1993). “Finite element analysis of multiple bolted joints in orthotropic plates.”Comp. and Struct., 46(15), 859–867.
62.
Rahman, M. U., Rowlands, R. E., Cook, R. D., and Wilkinson, T. L.(1983). “An iterative procedure for finite-element stress analysis of frictional contact problems.”Comp. and Struct., 18(6), 947–954.
63.
Rodd, P. D. (1988). “Timber joints made with improved circular dowel fasteners.”Proc., Int. Timber Engrg. Conf., Forest Products Research Society, Madison, Wis., Vol. 1, 26–37.
64.
Rooke, D. P., and Hutchins, S. M.(1984). “Stress intensity factors for cracks at loaded holes-effect of load distribution.”J. Strain Anal. for Engrg. Des., 9(2), 81–96.
65.
Rowlands, R. E., Rahman, M. U., Wilkinson, T. L., and Chiang, Y. I.(1982). “Singleand multiple-bolted joints in orthotropic materials.”Compos., 13(3), 273–280.
66.
Schniewind, A. P., and Lyon, D. E.(1973). “A fracture mechanics approach to the tensile strength perpendicular-to-grain of dimension lumber.”Wood Sci. and Technol., 7, 45–59.
67.
Schniewind, A. P., and Pozniak, R. A.(1971). “On the fracture toughness of Douglas-fir wood.”Engrg. Fracture Mech., 2(3), 223–233.
68.
Shih, J.-S. (1992). “Experimental-numerical analysis of bolted joints in finite composites with and without inserts,” PhD thesis, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
69.
Smith, I. (1980). “A review of analytical and empirical models used to predict the strength and stiffness characteristics of timber joints with dowel type connectors.”Res. Rep. 1/80, Timber Research and Development Association, Buckinghamshire, England, (Aug.).
70.
Smith, I. (1982). “Analysis of mechanical timber joints with dowel type connectors subject to short term lateral loading—by finite element approximation.”Res. Rep. 2/82, Timber Research and Development Association, Buckinghamshire, England.
71.
Smith, I. (1983). “Mechanical timber joints subjected to “short term” lateral loading with special reference to joints with nails, bolts, or plain steel dowels.”Final Rep., Dept. of Energy, Timber Research and Development Association, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England.
72.
Smith, I. (1988). “An integrated approach to modelling load-slip behavior of timber joints with dowel-type fasteners.”Proc., Int. Conf. on Timber Engrg., Vol. 2, 285–293.
73.
Smith, F. W., and Penney, D. T.(1980). “Fracture mechanics analysis of butt joints in laminated wood beams.”Wood Sci., 12(4), 227–235.
74.
Soltis, L. A., and Wilkinson, T. L. (1987). “Bolted connection design.”General Tech. Rep. FPL-54, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Forest Service, Forest Products Lab., Madison, Wis.
75.
Stahl, D. C., Cramer, S. M., and McDonald, K.(1990). “Modeling the effect of out-of-plane fiber orientation in lumber specimens.”Wood and Fiber Sci., 22(2), 173–192.
76.
Stieda, C. K. A. (1993). “Design requirements for connections in timber structures in CSA Standard 086.I-M89 on engineering design in wood (limit states design).”Proc., Int. Workshop on Wood Connections, Forest Products Society, Madison, Wis., 24–29.
77.
Stluka, R. T. (1960). “Theoretical design of a nailed or bolted joint under load,” MS thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
78.
Standard for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) for engineered wood construction: AF&PA/ASCE-16-95. (1996). ASCE, New York, N.Y.
79.
Structural wood research, state-of-the-art and research needs. (1984). R. Y. Itani, and K. F. Faherty, eds., ASCE, New York, N.Y.
80.
Trayer, G. W. (1932). “The bearing strength of wood under bolts.”Tech. Bull. 332, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Forest Service, Washington, D.C.
81.
Tsai, S. W.(1984). “A survey of macroscopic failure criteria for composite materials.”J. Reinforced Plastics and Compos., 3, 40–62.
82.
Tsai, S. W., and Wu, E. M.(1971). “A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials.”J. Compos. Mat., 5, 58–80.
83.
Tsujino, T., and Hirai, T.(1983). “Nonlinear load-slip relationship of bolted wood-joints with steel side members. I: Numerical analysis based upon a finite element method.”Mokuzai Gakkaishi, J. Japan Wood Resour. Soc., 29(12), 833–838.
84.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). (1987). “Wood handbook: wood as an engineering material.”Agriculture handbook 72, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis.
85.
Waszczak, J. P., and Cruse, T. A.(1971). “Failure mode and strength predictions of anisotropic bolt bearing specimens.”J. Compos. Mat., 5, 421–425.
86.
Werner, H. (1993). “Bearing capacity of dowel-type wood connections accounting for the influence of relevant parameters,” PhD dissertation, Karlsruhe Univ., Karlsruhe, Germany.
87.
Whitney, J. M., and Nuismer, R. J.(1974). “Stress fracture criteria for laminated composites containing stress concentrations.”J. Compos. Mat., 8, 253–265.
88.
Wilkinson, T. L., Fuchs, E. A., and Rowlands, R. E. (1978). “Photomechanical determination of stresses in the neighborhood of loaded holes in anisotropic media.”Proc., 6th Int. Conf. on Experimental Stress Anal., Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Berichte Vdi Berichte Nr 313.
89.
Wilkinson, T. L., and Rowlands, R. E.(1981a). “Influence of elastic properties on the stresses in bolted joints in wood.”Wood Sci., 14(1), 15–22.
90.
Wilkinson, T. L., and Rowlands, R. E. (1981b). “Analysis of mechanical joints in wood.”Experimental Mech., 411–414.
91.
Woodward, C., and Minor, J.(1988). “Failure theories for Douglas-fir in tension.”J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 114(12), 2808–2818.
92.
Xu, X. W., and Fan, W. X.(1991). “Stresses in orthotropic laminate with two elastic pins having different fitting tolerances.”J. Engrg. Mech., ASCE, 117(6), 1382–1402.
93.
Zahn, J. J.(1992). “Reliability of bolted wood connections.”J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 118(12), 3362–3376.
94.
Zanbergs, J. G., and Smith, F. W.(1988). “Finite element fracture prediction for wood with knots and cross grain.”Wood and Fiber Sci., 20(1), 97–106.
95.
Zhang, K. D., and Ueng, C. E. S.(1984). “Stresses around a pin-loaded hole in orthotropic plates.”J. Compos. Mat., 18, 432–446.
96.
Zhang, K. D., and Ueng, C. E. S.(1985). “Stresses around a pin-loaded hole in orthotropic plates with arbitrary loading direction.”Compos. Struct., 3, 119–143.
97.
Zink, A. G., Pellicane, P. J., and Anthony, R. W.(1995). “A stress transformation approach to predicting the failure mode in wood.”Wood Sci. and Technol., 30(1), 21–30.
98.
Zink, A. G., Pellicane, P. J., and Shuler, C. E.(1994). “Ultrastructural analysis of softwood fracture surfaces.”Wood Sci. and Technol., 28, 329–338.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 123 • Issue 8 • August 1997
Pages: 1054 - 1062
Copyright
Copyright © 1997 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Published online: Aug 1, 1997
Published in print: Aug 1997
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.