Framework of Digital Lean Construction and Implementation of Its Management Platform for the Construction Phase
Publication: Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Volume 150, Issue 6
Abstract
In order to solve the problem of lack of appropriate tools in the lean construction of construction projects, a framework of digital lean construction is proposed as a whole, and its management platform is implemented for construction phase by integrating lean construction with digital technologies. The concept of digital lean construction is proposed, its management model is constructed and refined, and the corresponding management platform is implemented for the construction phase. The framework is verified by holding an expert workshop and applying the management platform to typical construction projects. The research contributes not only to the establishment of the theoretical foundation to upgrade lean construction, but also to accelerating the transition from lean construction to smart lean construction. Two directions of future research are expected, i.e., to enhance the integration of the lean tools and digital technologies and clarify the transition to smart lean construction.
Practical Applications
Due to the complexity of lean construction and the lack of tool support, its widespread application have not been found significantly up to now. The development of digital technologies provides a potential solution to address this issue. Based on the integration of lean construction and digital technologies, a framework that includes management models and a management platform for digital lean construction was established in this paper. Then, a management platform was developed and applied to verify the management framework. It facilitates not only the efficient collaboration of the participants, but also the easy application of lean principles in the projects. The framework is expected to enhance quality, reduce management costs, and improve management capabilities in the projects. It provides a theoretical foundation for lean management and digital transformation upgrades of enterprises to drive changes in construction industry production methods and the corresponding management practices, promoting the high-quality development of the construction industry.
Introduction
The construction industry carries out production and business activities around construction projects. Normally, construction projects have the characteristics of long construction cycle, large capital investment, scattered locations, multispecialty, and multiple participants. Due to such characteristics, they are highly complex and uncertain, making them prone to such issues as project delays, cost overruns, quality defects, and safety accidents.
The lean principles of manufacturing industry have the potential to improve the situation when they are used in the construction sector. In a retrospective examination of history, the Lean Construction Institute (LCI) uncovered their successful application during the construction of the Empire State Building in 1931 (Merker 2018). Danish scholar Lauris Koskela drew parallels between the construction and manufacturing industries, recognizing their inherent similarities (Koskela 1992). He proposed that effective management practices from manufacturing could be adapted and applied to the construction industry, although “lean construction” had not yet been explicitly coined (Koskela 1992). In 1993, Glenn Ballard discussed the advantageous implications of substituting traditional construction approaches with lean construction to enhance the performance of engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) projects (Ballard 1993). However, he did not delve into a comprehensive definition of lean construction in his paper.
Building upon existing research findings, in 1999, Gregory A. Howell formally defined lean construction as a novel construction production management approach, with fundamental characteristics such as clearly defined delivery goals, the pursuit of maximizing customer benefits, parallel design and production processes, and comprehensive production control throughout the building’s entire life cycle (Howell 1999). In 2000, Lauris Koskela introduced the transfer-flow-value (TFV) theory, which emphasized the transformation process within lean construction flow and the elimination of waste (Koskela 2000). This theory laid the theoretical foundation for subsequent lean construction research, ushering in a period of rapid theoretical exploration and practical application development within the lean construction field (Koskela 2000).
Lean construction is aimed to realize value maximization and waste reduction through a systematic, synergistic, and continuously improved design and building processes and flows (Sbiti et al. 2021). As a result, a large number of lean construction techniques have been developed for design and engineering, planning and control, construction and site management, and health and safety management (Bablola et al. 2019). However, their application in real construction projects can only rarely be seen due to their complexity of application and the lack of integrated tools.
Based on the literature review presented in the next section, it is expected that the way toward smart lean construction is a gradual and long process, with digital lean construction representing an intermediate stage resulting from the amalgamation of digital technologies and lean construction. Hence, it becomes imperative to first explore and implement digital lean construction. In addition, although existing research has made significant strides in integrating digital technologies and lean construction, there remains an overall lack of systematic explorations into the integration of lean construction and digital technologies.
The current application of digital technologies in lean construction predominantly remains at the technical level and has yet to achieve the integration even in the level of management, organization and processes. Particularly, digital technologies are primarily employed in isolated instances within lean construction applications and lack the support of a comprehensive integration platform. Consequently, there are two primary research gaps that need to be addressed. The first involves the necessity to establish a lean construction framework that fully incorporates digital technologies, and the second centers on exploring the digital platform corresponding to the digital lean construction framework, providing tools to facilitate the application of lean construction.
Hence, the objective of this paper is to establish the framework of digital lean construction and a corresponding management platform integrating lean construction principles with digital technologies. The digital lean construction framework includes models such as a conceptual model and management models for digital lean construction. Adopting a design research approach, this paper commences by elaborating on the definition and characteristics of digital lean construction and establish the conceptual model. Subsequently, a digital lean construction management model is formulated, followed by a refined focus on enhancing the digital lean construction management model. Furthermore, the study places particular emphasis on addressing the challenges associated with the absence of adequate tool support within lean construction applications. It involves the design and development of the corresponding platform.
To validate the research, senior experts in the fields of engineering management and digitalization were invited to assess the framework. Concurrently, typical construction projects served to verify the practical aspects of the study. This research endeavors to furnish a theoretical foundation and practical tools for the advancement of digital lean construction, thereby contributing not only to the establishment of the theoretical foundation to upgrade lean construction, but also to accelerating the transition from lean construction to smart lean construction.
Literature Review
Some studies focused on the interactions between lean construction and digital technologies. Sacks et al. (2010) established an interaction matrix between 24 lean principles and 18 building information modeling (BIM) functionalities to investigate the effect of value maximization and waste reduction through a systematic literature review and real construction projects investigation, of which 52 out of 56 interactions create positive synergies between lean construction and digital technologies. By extending the interaction matrix, the subsequent studies further explored the interactions between lean construction and BIM from different perspectives, including operation and maintenance (Oskouie et al. 2012), information management for design (Mollasalehi et al. 2017), sustainability (Saieg et al. 2018), planning and control (Schimanski et al. 2020), virtual design and construction (VDC) (Rodriguez et al. 2021), and megaprojects (Evans et al. 2021).
In addition, Brissi et al. (2022) explored the interactions between lean principles and other digital technologies, including robotic systems, modeling and simulation, digitalization and virtualization, sensing, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. These studies showed that the implementation of lean construction provides a better opportunity for the application of digital technologies, and in turn, the application of digital technologies improves the effectiveness and efficiency of lean construction.
Although studies based on interaction matrix mainly focused on the interactions between a single lean principle and a single BIM functionality, some more in-depth studies established an integration framework for BIM and lean construction, in which the last-planner system (LPS) is the most integrated lean technique (Ballard 2000). Bhatla and Leite (2012) established a BIM-integrated LPS process, in which BIM is leveraged for three-dimensional (3D) visualization, four-dimensional (4D) simulation, and clash detection to improve the robustness of the planned workflow. Wickramasekara et al. (2020) established a simulation-integrated LPS framework, in which BIM is the single data source for 3D rendering, 4D scheduling, five-dimensional (5D) cost estimation, and clash detection.
Furthermore, Sbiti et al. (2021) proposed to generate a phase plan based on BIM and a work breakdown structure (WBS) database to generate a looking-ahead plan based on an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system and a document management system, and to guide the plan execution based on a mobile application which can exchange data with BIM to comprehensively automate the LPS process. Besides LPS, some studies also established BIM-integrated frameworks for Kanban (Toledo et al. 2016), sustainable lean (Heyl and Demir 2019), lean design (Mellado and Lou 2020), and lean project delivery system (LPDS) (Aslam et al. 2021), respectively.
Meanwhile, some studies have developed lean construction software systems for both lean design management and LPS based construction management. Wong et al. (2009) developed software named SetPlan to extract information from BIM to conduct set-based design (SBD). Plume and Mitchell (2007) applied an existing BIM collaborative management platform in the design process to achieve collaboration and identify the existing issues in the management platform. Ma et al. (2018) developed a BIM based collaboration platform for integrated project delivery (IPD) projects, in which the LPS- and SBD-based integrated design processes are fully or partially automated.
Several studies have investigated the integration of lean construction with digital technologies such as BIM, Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, mixed reality, and deep learning. Koseoglu and Nurtan-Gunes (2018) explored the integration of BIM and lean construction, with a specific focus on implementing mobile BIM processes on construction sites. Their research found that not only can achievements be realized at the technical level, but successful implementation of lean construction principles can also be achieved at the organizational level by leveraging BIM technology in the lean construction. Xu et al. (2018) integrated internet platform technology into lean prefabrication production processes, proposing a cloud-based IoT integration platform and a cloud asset data model. The study validated the feasibility and effectiveness of the research through an actual prefabricated construction project.
Tezel et al. (2022) proposed a framework that integrated blockchain and lean construction to focus on the interaction between them. The research results indicated that blockchain can facilitate the implementation of lean construction practices (for example, capturing and accessing final planning data), and vice versa (for example, value stream mapping facilitating the incorporation of blockchain into processes). Carbonari et al. (2023) integrated mixed reality and lean construction, and then validated in a renovation building project. The research result showed that the integration can enhance communication efficiency, project monitoring, and supervision. Deng and Tan (2023) proposed a framework that integrates BIM and deep learning to lead lean production applications. Through a validation in a road maintenance project, the integration was confirmed to be efficient to promote intelligent transformation of road maintenance.
Besides, as an extension of Industry 4.0 in the construction industry, Construction 4.0 takes cyberphysical systems as the core driving force and digital ecosystems as the support, integrates a number of element technologies, and provides concepts, technologies, and application frameworks for information exchange, mutual benefit, and coprosperity in the construction field (Sawhney et al. 2020). Recently, a collaborative monograph was published named Lean Construction 4.0, which illustrated the new concept of Lean Construction 4.0 comprehensively (Gonzalez et al. 2023). This monograph integrated lean construction and Construction 4.0, and proposed a framework of Lean Construction House 4.0 to define four main upgrade goals of mindset, delivery, technology, and products clearly. In the book (Gonzalez et al. 2023), the concept of smart lean construction is defined as the incorporation of intelligence and digital technologies in lean construction. The term “digital lean construction” was mentioned by Gonzalez et al. (2023), but without elaboration.
In summary, lean construction has been integrated with various digital technologies through multiple modes, achieving mutual benefits and playing a positive role in waste reduction, efficiency improvement, quality enhancement, and cost reduction. However, the way toward smart lean construction is a gradual and long process, and no framework has been provided to integrate lean construction with digital technologies in a comprehensive way up to now.
Methodology
The flowchart of the research methodology is shown in Fig. 1.
The major points of this flowchart are as follows:
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Establish the concept and conceptual model for the digital lean construction. By carrying out the literature review, preliminary research, and a field investigation, digital lean construction is defined through abstraction and induction, its characteristics and connotations are analyzed, and its conceptual model is established to show the key elements and their interrelationships in the digital lean construction.
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Propose the management model for digital lean construction and requirements analysis for management platform. On the basis of the conceptual model for digital lean construction, in-depth analysis is conducted to obtain the model for digital lean construction management. The model is used to represent the key management elements of digital lean construction and their interrelationships. The functional requirements of the management platform will be divided into two major categories to analyzed, i.e., lean work package management and digital lean construction process support.
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Design the management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase. By focusing on the construction phase and refining the model for digital lean construction management, the minimum management unit is determined, and its classification, role, and determination methods are clarified. Then, a data-driven mechanism for digital lean construction management is constructed to achieve in-depth and accurate expression of the digital lean construction management in the construction phase.
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Implement the management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase. Based on the aforementioned design, a management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase was developed using a platform as a service (PaaS) platform.
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Verification and evaluation. The rationality and effectiveness of the framework of digital lean construction was verified through an expert workshop, and the feasibility of the framework and the management platform was evaluated through typical construction projects.
Concept and Conceptual Model of Digital Lean Construction
Concept of Digital Lean Construction
Because digital lean construction has not been defined yet, as a start of the study, it is defined as follows: it is an advanced process for construction projects in which lean construction is integrated with digital technologies and a matching project delivery method is adopted to reduce or even eliminate waste and meet customers’ needs as much as possible. According to the definition, the major characteristics of digital lean construction and the reason why it is defined in this way can be summarized as follows.
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Lean construction as the core. Needless to say, the Toyota Production System is one of the most successful experiences in manufacturing industry (Sbiti et al. 2021). In essence, lean construction also promotes customer-centric and continual improvement by integrating production management theory, construction management theory, and the particularity of construction projects to maximize value and minimize waste. The core of digital lean construction is lean construction because the aim of the integration of lean construction with digital technologies is to pursue higher efficiency and effectiveness in projects compared with traditional management methods.
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Organic integration with digital technologies as the support. The concept of digital technologies is apparently very important for both Construction 4.0 and Lean Construction 4.0; however, there has not been a single universally accepted and authoritative definition for digital technologies in the related monographs (Sawhney et al. 2020; Gonzalez et al. 2023). Generally speaking, the concept of digital technologies refers to the diverse set of tools, methods, and systems designed to acquire, store, process, analyze, and manage data. These technologies span hardware, software, and methodologies encompassing database management systems, data analytics platforms, data warehousing, data integration, data governance, and other related fields. The goal of digital technologies is to enable organizations to handle efficiently and effectively large volumes of data, extract meaningful insights, and make informed decisions. Based on some industrial reports (Report Committee 2017), relating to the construction industry, digital technologies mainly include BIM, big data, the IoT, virtual reality (VR), indoor positioning, computer vision (CV), artificial intelligence (AI), and various digitally integrated management platforms, some of which have adopted data-driven mechanisms. To enhance the efficiency of the application, their organic integration with lean construction in a construction project is essential. Besides, in the integration, a data-driven mechanism should be introduced to drive the process of lean construction for making it more efficient.
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Comprehensive project delivery method as the basis. Lean construction is defined as the application of the principles and methods of lean production to the design, construction, and delivery of capital-intensive goods and services, with the goal of improving value, quality, and customer satisfaction while reducing waste and environmental impact. Its main characteristics include a focus on value, streamlined processes, cross-functional teams, problem-solving mindset, faster decision-making, collaborative relationships, continuous improvement, flexibility and agility, sustained learning, and environmental sustainability. However, up to now, no construction project delivery method has been corresponded to lean construction yet. In order to maximize the role of digital technologies, an advanced construction project delivery method that matches digital technologies should be used in lean construction so that the management staff from multiple specialties and multiple participants can carry out efficient project management and collaborative work to eliminate potential conflicts. In practice, it is required to specify the project delivery method, so that we define the comprehensive project delivery method as the one that facilitates the management staff from multispecialties and multiple participants carry out efficient project management and collaborative work to eliminate potential conflicts, the detail of which will be stated in the section “Conceptual Model of Digital Lean Construction.” Indeed, the IPD method is such a construction project delivery method, in which the application of both BIM and management platform makes it possible to share risks and benefits among multispecialty and multiple participants and to facilitate collaboration among them in order to maximize the benefits of construction projects through organizational restructuring and contract constraints (Ma et al. 2018).
It deserves to be mentioned that the 14 principles of lean construction are the foundation and important pathway for achieving the goals of lean production (Sheikhkhoshkar et al. 2023; Peralta and Mourgues 2022). Among them, those that are relevant to the application of digital technologies include (1) use of a pull production method to avoid overproduction, (2) even distribution of workloads, and (3) standardization of work as the foundation for continuous improvement and empowering employees. These lean construction principles have actually been applied in the design of the platform.
Conceptual Model of Digital Lean Construction
Models are the simplified representation of complex things that help people better understand and grasp them. To deepen the knowledge about digital lean construction based on the aforementioned concept, it is necessary to establish a conceptual model to clarify its components and their interrelationships. Thus, the conceptual model of digital lean construction is constructed in this study as shown in Fig. 2.
In the model, digital lean construction is expressed as the intersection of lean construction, integrated application of digital technologies, and the comprehensive project delivery method. It consists of two parts, i.e., digital lean construction in the design phase and digital lean construction in the construction phase. The design results of construction projects, known as the digital sample, are exported through the digital lean construction in the design phase; and the construction results, i.e., the physical project, are exported through the digital lean construction in the construction phase. In order to achieve effective synergy between the two parts to provide necessary information to the management, a digital twin relationship needs to be established between the digital sample and physical project. That is to say, the digital sample is a twin mapping of the physical project in a digital space, and the project is a physical representation of the digital sample in a physical space. Compared with the traditional design results in two-dimensional (2D) drawings, the digital sample is characterized by its digital representation achieved through the integrated application of digital technologies, which can promote the efficient realization of the digital lean construction at the design phase when connected with digital twins.
The comprehensive project delivery method can be reflected differently depending on the phase of the project. In general, the comprehensive project delivery method corresponding to the design phase takes the form of collaborative work, including the collaborative work among multispecialty and multiple participants for parallel design, such as multispecialty and iterative design and multiparticipants’ collaborative work to optimize the design. The advantage of the collaborative work is that it maximizes the value of the digital sample, helps eliminate potential design change, and avoids potential waste in the construction phase in advance. This form is easily ensured through effective enterprise management processes.
The comprehensive project delivery method corresponding to the construction phase takes the form more of unified management, characterized by the unified scheduling of tasks of multispecialty and multiple participants in the project under the same schedule, including the unified allocation of construction machinery and working face occupancy time; and the unified procurement of construction materials and onsite transportation which are coordinated and arranged by the construction project management team on construction sites.
The advantage of the comprehensive project delivery method is that through contract constraints, incentive mechanisms, and penalty measures, the multispecialty and multiple participants can be organized into a construction project management team with consistent goals, shared benefit and shared risk, so as to eliminate possible conflicts in construction processes to the greatest extent and ensure the continuity of works in order to minimize the waste generated in the project and maximize the value delivery of the project.
Construction projects will generate a large amount of dynamic data such as management data, status data, and process data during both the design phase and the construction phase. On the one hand, BIM and the management platform are the carriers of the data; on the other hand, the data are also the core elements that drive the design phase and the construction phase of lean construction, which can make it possible to transform the construction phase from traditional static human factors–driven to dynamic data-driven. As a result, the integrated application of digital technologies can not only embed advanced work processes into the management platform in advance to realize the automatic flow of work, which reduces time waste, but also make full use of digital technologies, especially BIM and big data, among others, so that all relevant participants can collaborate efficiently under the data-driven mechanism, with both the efficiency and quality of lean construction management systematically improved.
Management Models for Digital Lean Construction and Requirements Analysis for Management Platform
Management Models for Digital Lean Construction
There is no doubt that management plays a crucial role in digital lean construction. To fully reflect the management requirements, this paper established management models based on the conceptual model, which include the management models for the digital lean construction in the design phase and that in the construction phase, respectively, as shown in Fig. 3.
Management Model for Digital Lean Construction in the Design Phase
Total value design (TVD) plays a significant role in lean design by aligning with the principles of value creation, streamlined decision-making processes, cross-functional team collaboration, problem-solving mindset, and faster decision-making. With the current conditions of information technology application, design work can be implemented entirely in a digital space. The full use of digital space contributes to not only streamlined decision-making, but also cross-functional team collaboration. Under this premise, the management model for digital lean construction in the design phase mainly includes three parts, i.e., design deliverables, digital lean construction process in the design phase, and management platform for the design phase, as shown in Fig. 3.
The design deliverables are the minimum management units that need to be delivered in the digital lean construction process in the design phase. The standardization of the design deliverables and the operational processes is beneficial to faster decision-making. A management platform for design phase can be used to facilitate this point. Besides, the design deliverables need to be completed by the designers on their specialized software and then submitted in batches or one at a time to the management platform. Therefore, each design deliverable is associated with a series of management data (e.g., designer, submitter, submission date, connection with other design deliverables, and so on) in the management platform for the design phase.
The management data need to be used to realize the data-driven mechanism in the environment. The association of management data meets the requirements of cross-functional team collaboration and decision-making efficiency, which will attribute to provide the maximum value to the customer eventually. To this end, the management platform for the design phase carries the design deliverables and their management data on the one hand, and supports the digital lean construction process in the design phase on the other hand.
Management Model for Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
The management model for the digital lean construction in the construction phase mainly includes three parts, i.e., lean work packages, the digital lean construction process in the construction phase, and management platform for construction phase, as shown in Fig. 3. Among them, the lean work package is adopted as the minimum management unit for the digital lean construction process in the construction phase and is carried out through the execution of the digital lean construction processes. In this study, specific meanings are assigned to the lean work package beyond traditional definition of work package, which will be explained in the section “Definition, Classification and Determination of Lean Work Package.”
Different from the design phase, the digital lean construction process in the construction phase consists of task management in the digital space and task execution in the physical space. In the digital space, the management data associated with lean work packages are used to realize the data-driven mechanism for the digital lean construction in the construction phase. On the one hand, the management platform for the construction phase carries the management data of lean work packages and supports the digital lean construction process in the construction phase on the other hand.
Refinement of Management Model for Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
To implement digital lean construction, it is necessary to refine its management models. This paper concentrates on digital lean construction within the construction phase. It is mainly for two reasons. Firstly, space constraints of the paper have led to a focus on only one of the phases. Secondly, the construction phase represents the primary locus of waste generation and is particularly susceptible to process deviations, so that the construction phase is more urgent than design phase to be studied.
Definition, Classification, and Determination of Lean Work Package
Normally, it is needed to break down the construction work to obtain minimum management object, i.e., tasks, when the construction of projects is scheduled. Theoretically, the breakdown can be done in any granularity. In general, if the granularity of tasks is too rough, the requirements for refined management can hardly be achieved; otherwise, if it is too fine, the management cost may become very high. According to our research and practice, the lean work package is defined and proposed to be the minimum management unit in digital lean construction in the construction phase. Namely, the construction work is broken only down into tasks at the lean work package level, which includes execution tasks, inspection tasks, and rectification tasks. Obviously, it is crucial to determine lean work packages in a reasonable manner for effective digital lean construction.
Definition of Lean Work Package
According to the Project Management Institute, a work package is defined as the “lowest level of the work breakdown structure for which cost and duration are estimated and managed” (PMI 2017). Based on the management model for the digital lean construction in the construction phase and best engineering practices, in this paper, the term lean work package is defined as follows: it is a process that is obtained by breaking down the construction work based on the principle of executable, measurable, and deliverable, and that meets the conditions of occurring at a workable construction site, being performed by using a set of tools and methods, and by a specialty team at the same time. According to the definition, lean work package is a kind of work package, but it pays attention to the way how the work package is implemented, thus paving a way to use the digital technologies to refine the management.
It is clear from its definition that the lean work package is not only the minimum management unit for the delivery of construction results in digital lean construction in the construction phase, but also the basic unit corresponding to the data-driven mechanism that is used to drive the process. The definition is used to specify the granularity of work packages that are utilized in digital lean construction in the construction phase. Construction project management typically involves the elements of personnel, machinery, materials, methods, and the environment, as well as the management of the schedule, cost, quality, and safety aspects. According to the definition of the lean work package, these management activities need to be implemented around the lean work packages in digital lean construction in the construction phase.
It deserves to be explained that the concept of lean work package has come from our best engineering practices. In recent years, we have been involved in establishing the best classification of management unit for construction projects. We obtained the idea for the classification from a veteran manager and practiced the idea in five real construction projects of building, where refined project management was achieved successfully for each project.
The following explains the reasons for choosing the lean work package as the minimum management unit of the digital lean construction in the construction phase through an example. Taking construction operation works as an example, a working process (e.g., wall construction process) with coarser granularity than the lean work package contains many steps (such as steel bar binding and formwork supporting), which will involve different specialty teams, tools, and methods. Thus, it may only achieve more extensive management because it is difficult to clarify responsibilities among different specialty teams. However, if the management is based on steps (such as a concrete pouring step), it will be too finely managed, so that it may lead to the problems of too extensive time and management cost.
Classification of Lean Work Package
Usually, the construction plan is formulated for the construction operation work, and the supporting technical service work and resource procurement and supply work are handled as constraints attached to the construction operation work. It is assumed that the constraints can be met when the construction operation work begins. In fact, this assumption is sometimes difficult to uphold. Therefore, the time consumption of the latter two kinds of construction work and their logical relationship with the construction operation work need to be considered for refined management. Thus, it is necessary to include them into the master planning and management process. On account of this, the construction work carried out in the construction phase is divided into three categories in this study, i.e., technical services work, resource procurement and supply work, and construction operation work. Obviously, the division is corresponding to the works included in the EPC method, respectively.
Determination of Lean Work Package
As the fundamental management units throughout the construction process, the lean work package can be recognized to be the starting point of management, which needs to be determined through a work breakdown. Moreover, every lean work package has to confirm what the deliverables are, what needs to be done during construction, who is responsible, when it should be done, and what operation standards should be upheld. Additionally, a lean work package has to contain the required resources and their associated costs for completing a specific work process. Normally, there are two ways of work breakdown in the management of construction projects:
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Project breakdown structure (PBS). Namely, the project entity is broken down. It can be divided into four levels from coarse to fine, i.e., project, system, floor/flow section, and component, such as Wall A of Section A in the second floor of the structural system of Building A.
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Work breakdown structure (WBS). The work breakdown is carried out based on the construction organization plan. It can normally cover five levels from coarse to fine, i.e., project, phase, process, lean work package, and step.
The PBS results cannot cover all information in a construction organization plan because PBS focuses more on the breakdown of project deliverables rather than the management aspects of the project. Information in a construction organization plan can be associated with a lean work package of the construction operation work when used in management as a complementary or more detailed management structure that works in tandem with the PBS. In the lean work package related management data, the executor can be associated with the project’s organizational breakdown structure (OBS), the working materials can be allocated with the project’s resource breakdown structure (RBS), the time plan can be connected with the project’s time breakdown structure (TBS), and the settlement amounts can be linked to the project’s cost breakdown structure (CBS), as shown in Fig. 4.
Thus, the lean work package fits the concept of refined management of projects, which requires making use of PBS (Hu and He 2014), WBS (Wickramasekara et al. 2020), OBS, RBS, TBS, and CBS (6BS) (He et al. 2011) information, as shown in Fig. 4. Therefore, it is anticipated that by adopting the lean work package as the minimum management unit of construction projects on worker power-machine-material, method, environment, schedule, cost, quality, safety, and other aspects, the accountability and efficiency of management can be enhanced and reworks can be avoided, thus ultimately contributing to the reduction of waste in the construction project.
Obviously, it takes time or even needs experiences to determine the lean work packages. To quicken determination of lean work packages, a lean work package template library is provided that categorizes and includes various types of lean work package templates. Lean work package templates contain common standard processes and their related data, such as the name, type, steps, standards, quotas, and logical relationships of the processes. When managing projects, management personnel can utilize the lean work package template library to quickly establish lean work packages based on the project type.
Overall Workflow for Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
The overall workflow for the digital lean construction in the construction phase is complex in the sense that there are intertwined and cross-nested lean work packages. Based on the task workflow of an individual lean work package, the control principle of a closed-loop system has been formed for the overall workflow of the digital lean construction in the construction phase. It focuses on the management work, that is, the planning and control of work, and is divided into four steps: plan, do, check, and act (PDCA), as shown in Fig. 5. The specific implementation process is described as follows:
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In the plan step, the master control plan, hierarchical plans, and construction organization plan are first formulated in the construction preparation stage, then the construction work breakdown is conducted to determine the lean work packages of the project. Then, the weekly work plan is formulated by optimizing the schedule with lean work package–related tasks.
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In the do step, the three types of tasks of lean work packages are carried out according to the weekly work plan.
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In the check step, the completed lean work package is checked against the weekly work plan to determine whether the planned lean work package has been completed complying with the relevant standards. If it has, the lean work package is completed.
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In the act step, if the task has not been fully completed, the state of “to be rectified” will be activated, and the content in the template will be adjusted appropriately according to the execution situation. If problems are found in the standards in the template, they will be corrected in the template library. Namely, if the actual execution time and the estimated one of a process do not match each other, the quota data in the lean work package template will be adjusted. Finally, the workflow will return to the beginning to enter the next cycle after completion.
Lean construction tools, such as LPS, pull planning, and just-in-time systems in lean construction can be utilized in the PDCA workflow through unifying the lean work package–level planning and control. For example, utilizing VDC tools from lean construction, the overall construction schedule can be simulated, optimized, tracked, and dynamically adjusted. In addition, digital technologies can be integrated in the overall workflow; for instance, artificial intelligence algorithms may be used to optimize the schedule and big data analysis for real-time rectification, the coordination of mobile app and the management platform can achieve task reception and feedback, and big data are available for plan execution analysis and real-time course correction. Furthermore, a management platform can serve the overall workflow control of construction works.
Functional Requirements of Management Platform for Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
Normally, the requirements for systems should be established based on requirement analysis, in which the major aspects such as users, functions, and performances need to be investigated and analyzed. Nevertheless, as far as the functional requirements are concerned, they are determined mainly by analyzing the management models for digital lean construction in the construction phase, especially the refined management model for digital lean construction in the construction phase, because it sets up a new framework for management of projects, which the management platform should serve.
Considering that the lean work package is the minimum management unit, it is necessary to support the digital lean construction process by using the management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase. Based on the preceding analysis, the functional requirements of the management platform can be divided into two major categories, i.e., lean work package management and digital lean construction process support. This high-level classification helps in comprehending the overall functional requirements of the management platform, facilitating further refinement and clarification of the specific requirements of the management platform.
The category of lean work package management can be divided into the functional requirements of lean work package generation, maintenance of lean work package management data, and automatic transition of lean work package status. Among them, lean work package generation is a key requirement that involves utilizing the lean work package template library, optimization algorithms, and simulation techniques to break down the construction work into lean work packages, ensuring smooth construction operations and optimal utilization of resources.
The category of digital lean construction process support can be divided into two subcategories, i.e., (1) work planning and control, and (2) dynamic execution of tasks at the lean work package level. The former can further be divided into (1) intelligent generation and maintenance of work plans, (2) flow and push of tasks at the lean work package level, and (3) analysis and correction of work execution. The latter can further be divided into (1) dynamic feedback on the execution status of three categories of construction works, i.e., technical services work, resource procurement, and supply work, and (2) construction operation work. It also involves the collection, storage, maintenance, and sharing of data related to the execution of lean work package–level tasks.
Design of Management Platform for Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
Architecture of Management Platform
Up to now, there have been numerous management platforms available for construction projects. Generally, these management platforms include various functional modules for schedule management, contract management, cost management, quality management, safety management, procurement management, and materials management to facilitate the collaboration among the multispecialty and multiple participants. These functional modules need improvement and enhancement under the management model for digital lean construction. However, this does not mean one has to start from scratch. Based on the functional requirements of the management platform, traditional management platforms can be improved or enhanced to meet the requirement for digital lean construction in the construction phase. Besides, rapid application development environments can be used to accelerate the development of the management platform while leveraging existing resources and capabilities. For this purpose, this paper focuses on the architecture and distinctive requirements of such a management platform, and covers only the management aspects as mentioned previously. Accordingly, the architecture of management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase is established as shown in Fig. 6.
The architecture consists of three layers, i.e., the data layer, the business logic layer, and the application layer. The data layer is primarily responsible for data collection, storage, processing, modeling, and providing database application interfaces. The business logic layer consists of modules that implement the main functional requirements of the management platform. Finally, the application layer focuses on the specific usage scenarios of the functional modules.
Data Layer
To support the functionality of the business logic layer and application layer in the digital lean construction management platform for construction phase, data layer needs to provide the following three types of data, as shown in Fig. 7:
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Basic data. These are related to the three categories of lean work package, i.e., technical service work, resource procurement and supply work, and construction operation work. Each category of lean work package includes such basic data such as work content, work object, work space, work materials, execution standards, acceptance criteria, and logical relationships, and the continuous improvement of project management may be reflected as the continuous improvement of basic data.
•
Plan data. These are determined through optimized scheduling based on the lean work package. Once the basic data are inputted, algorithms can be utilized to process and analyze the data, resulting in a scheduling plan. The plan data include information such as equipment allocation, responsible personnel, inspectors, time schedule, and settlement amounts corresponding to each task at the lean work package level.
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Execution data. These refer to the data used to identify the execution status of task at the lean work package level. They include seven different statuses, i.e., Pending/In Progress, Pending Inspection/Inspection in Progress, Pending Rectification/Rectification in Progress, and Confirmed. After the generation of lean work package–level tasks, the platform will allocate these tasks to the appropriate workers and equipment through optimization calculations and drive the execution of each task according to the predefined standards. The purpose of optimization calculation is to evenly distribute workloads. The allocation of lean work package–level tasks can contribute to the standardization of work to empower employees. Each lean work package–level task is associated with corresponding task status data, which tracks the progress and status of the task throughout its execution.
Business Logic Layer
To address the three main functional requirements as mentioned in the section “Functional Requirements of Management Platform for Digital Lean Construction at Construction Phase,” i.e., lean work package generation, maintenance of lean work package data, and automatic transition of lean work package status, the business logic layer is designed to contain modules, i.e., lean work package generation module, scheduling and dispatching module at the lean work package level, and task execution engine at the lean work package level.
Lean Work Package Generation Module
The lean work package generation module is based on lean work package templates and optimization algorithms and is used to break down the construction work. The principles are illustrated in Fig. 8.
In addition to the master control plan and the hierarchical plan of the project, the weekly work plan is another management means to promote the completion of the project as planned. When formulating the LPS, the construction work breakdown can be conducted based on the lean work packages template, the construction organization plan, and the BIM model corresponding to shop drawings for lean work packages to determine lean work packages and obtain their basic data. By optimizing variables, objectives, and constraints, an optimized schedule can be obtained for the activities, resulting in the planned data for the tasks.
It should be noticed that the template library for lean work packages plays a key role in determining the lean work packages involved in a construction project. Its essential purpose is to serve as a reusable database, allowing for the repetition and standardization of lean work packages. It is also the foundation for standardization of work. It facilitates project managers to quickly determine the lean work packages without having much experience.
An example of the template for lean work packages is given in Table 1 for a construction operation work. The lean work package of wall and column formwork contains four steps: independent column formwork positioning rib welding, column formwork assembly and formwork joining, shear wall formwork assembly, and formwork diagonal bracing setup. The template also includes operation standards and lean work package acceptance criteria for each step a d quota information for labor, machinery, and material costs, as well as logical relationships. For example, the lean work package of formwork at a certain location can only be executed after that of reinforcement at the same location.
| System | Division | Subdivision | Lean work package | Category | Step | Standard | Quota | Logical relationship |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Main structure | Concrete structure | Formwork | Wall and column formwork | Construction operation work | • Independent column formwork positioning rib welding • Column formwork assembly, formwork closing • Shear wall formwork assembly • Formwork diagonal brace settings | Operation standards (including safety) and acceptance criteria (including quality) of each step. | Worker power-machine-material-worker hours cost quota | After the operation of wall column reinforcement binding |
It is worth pointing out that due to the large variety and number of lean work package templates, the preparation and maintenance of the templates involve a huge workload. Fortunately, once a complete template library is established, it is equivalent to having established a sound knowledge base for project management, which is convenient for the managers to efficiently manage the schedule, cost, quality, safety, and other aspects of the project.
Scheduling and Dispatching Module at the Lean Work Package Level
This module is used for tasks scheduling and dispatching at the lean work package level. Firstly, to facilitate collaborative development of the master control plan, the hierarchical plan, and the weekly work plan, ensuring coordination among these three levels of planning. To breakdown the construction work based on the three categories of works, i.e., technical services work, resource procurement and supply work, and construction operation work. Executable tasks at the lean work package level, such as the execution type of tasks, inspection type of tasks, and rectification type of tasks, will be generated automatically corresponding to each category. Description for different types of tasks at the lean work package level are listed in Table 2.
| Task type | Technical services lean work packages | Resource procurement and supply lean work packages | Construction operation lean work packages |
|---|---|---|---|
| Execution type of tasks | Designing: carry out detailed construction drawing design or specialized scheme design | Procurement and supply: carry out procurement of resources or onsite supply | Construction: carry out construction step by step |
| Inspection type of tasks | Checking: review the completed detailed construction drawings or specialized schemes for design or modifications | Checking: check the arrival of resources and the status of workface placement | Acceptance: conduct acceptance for completed construction or rework |
| Rectification type of tasks | Modification: modify the detailed construction drawing design or specialized scheme based on the review results | Supplement: supply the insufficient resources in procurement and supply based on the inspection results | Rework: rework the work that did not pass the acceptance |
Next, the modules will generate optimal scheduling plan at lean work package level by using optimization algorithms, which can be dispatched to the mobile client of the assigned workers automatically. The scheduling plan can be analyzed and adjusted appropriately according to the finished feedback data from the execution of lean work package tasks. Throughout the schedule and task tracking process, tools such as critical path analysis and look-ahead planning are utilized to simulate and optimize the schedule. This allows for dynamic calibration and adjustment of the schedule to ensure optimal performance, as shown in Fig. 9.
Task Execution Engine at the Lean Work Package Level
The task execution engine at the lean work package level is used to track, analyze, correct, and optimize the schedule dispatching and execution monitoring. It ensures the smooth completion of tasks and optimal utilization of resources. The engine determines which tasks have been completed and which tasks can be initiated according to the scheduling plan. The related lean work packages will be sent to corresponding workers as a start prompt, according to the process of executing a work procedure and the conditions for transitioning between work procedures.
The execution of a single lean work package is the foundation of the execution. The transition data of lean work package status can be used to drive the execution control of related lean work package–level tasks. The lean work package execution flow and status transition process are illustrated in Fig. 10.
In this process, lean tools, such as VDC, can be used to create detailed construction drawings/virtual simulation and optimization of specialized construction plans. Simultaneously, digital technologies, such as BIM, robots, IoT, artificial intelligence, big data, blockchain, and mobile application (APP), can be integrated to implement data collection, simulation analysis, optimization adjustment, execution monitoring, and warning feedback during the entire period of lean work package execution. For example, technologies such as sensors and the IoT can be used to timely collect real-time data from the construction site.
Through the use of artificial intelligence and big data analysis, various data related to construction site and lean work package–level tasks are analyzed. Based on the analysis results, adjustments and optimizations are made to the lean work packages, and various inspection tasks for each lean work package are automatically generated to ensure the smooth completion of the lean work packages. Through mobile applications, the task information and execution status at the lean work package level are provided to the construction management personnel in real time. Additionally, construction lean work package–level task execution reports are generated to support management personnel in making decisions and adjustments.
Application Layer
The application layer includes four categories, i.e., (1) construction operation standards and lean work package generation, (2) scheduling and optimization adjustment, (3) resource procurement and supply management, and (4) task execution and inspection. These are described in the following subsections.
Construction Operation Standards and Lean Work Package Generation
This category includes two application scenarios, i.e., operation standard development and lean work package generation. Among them, the former involves the establishment and maintenance of lean work package template libraries and construction operation standard repositories to ensure the consistence of operation standards for construction projects and support rapid construction work breakdown. The application scenarios, key activities, and application functions of the category of construction operation standards and lean work package generation are discussed, as detailed in Table 3.
| Application scenarios | Key activities | Application functions |
|---|---|---|
| Development of work standards | Establish and maintain lean work package template library | 1. Develop lean work package templates 2. Maintain template library |
| Establish and maintain work standards library | 1. Develop work standards 2. Maintain work standards library | |
| Lean work package generation | Generate construction lean work packages automatically based on the construction detailed design model and lean work package template library | 1. Import template library 2. Generate lean work package automatically |
| Check the integrity of lean work package technical services work, resource procurement and supply work, and construction operation work | Validate lean work package |
Scheduling and Optimization Adjustment Based on Lean Work Package
This category includes two application scenarios, i.e., (1) scheduling and lean work package–level task execution, and (2) schedule simulation optimization and monitoring adjustment. Among them, the former ensures a unified plan for the entire construction project by coordinating the three-level plans, namely the master control plan, hierarchical plan, and last-planner system, to create and distribute lean work package–level tasks. The latter involves utilizing the interrelationships between various levels of plans to perform schedule simulation optimization and drive adjustments in the plans at each level, ultimately achieving the optimal project schedule. The application scenarios, key activities, and application functions of the category of scheduling and optimization adjustment based on lean work package are discussed, as given in Table 4.
| Application scenarios | Key activities | Application functions |
|---|---|---|
| Scheduling and dispatching of tasks | Develop a master control plan based on the planning template | 1. Import planning templates 2. Develop the master control plan |
| Establish a hierarchical plan based on the master control plan, and establish the associated relationship with the nodes in the master control plan | Develop the hierarchical plans | |
| Create weekly work plans for the last tasks that can be performed at the workface and distribute tasks | 1. Develop the last schedule 2. Dispatch tasks | |
| Schedule simulation optimization and monitoring and adjustment | Establish logical relationships among plans at various levels based on optimization algorithms, and optimize the higher-level plans through feedback from lower-level plans | Schedule simulation and optimization |
| Provide real-time feedback on the actual progress, utilize optimized schedule to guide actual operations, and dynamically monitor the progress | Schedule monitoring and adjustment |
Resource Procurement and Supply Management Based on Lean Work Package
This category includes four types of scenarios: (1) procurement of labor, material, and machinery; (2) personnel entry; (3) material supply; and (4) machine and tool setup. The procurement of labor, materials, and machinery is ensured through contract planning, tendering and procurement, and contract performance monitoring, to ensure the procurement of project resources for labor, materials, and machinery. Personnel entry is ensured by scheduling lean work package–level tasks and reminding individuals to arrive on time, thereby providing the necessary workforce for construction operations according to the schedule. Material supply is carried out through a pull-based approach by developing a supply plan. Materials are timely arranged for onsite supply based on the required quantities, ensuring timely and adequate provision of materials for construction operations in the project. Machine and tool setup is based on the scheduling of lean work package–level tasks, where construction machinery and tools are scheduled to ensure that the required equipment is available on time for construction. The application scenarios, key activities, and application functions of the category of resource procurement and supply management are given in Table 5.
| Application scenarios | Key activities | Application functions |
|---|---|---|
| Procurement of labor, material, and machinery | Conduct contract planning and create a procurement list based on the project’s target cost | Contract planning |
| Identify qualified suppliers and products through source procurement options and conduct bidding | 1. Sourcing for procurement 2. Bidding and tendering | |
| Sign contract with the winning bidders and monitor contract performance to ensure timely measurement and payment | 1. Contract signing 2. Contract performance monitoring 3. Measurement and payment | |
| Personnel entry | Team members obtain lean work package–level task information, accurately determine the work area location, and safely arrive to start working | 1. Assignment of process-level tasks 2. Onsite navigation |
| Material supply | Develop a supply plan based on lean work package–level tasks and transportation lead time | Material supply plan preparation |
| Complete quantity and quality inspections quickly upon material arrival | Material reception and inspection | |
| Optimize material supply based on the execution status of lean work package–level tasks | Material supply scheduling | |
| Machine and tool setup | Schedule machinery and tools to be in place on time according to the lean work package–level schedule | Equipment deployment and scheduling |
Task Execution and Inspection Based on Lean Work Package
Two application scenarios are included in this category, i.e., construction operations and inspection acceptance. The application scenario of construction operations conducts lean work package construction in accordance with operation standards to ensure tasks are completed on time, with quality and quantity assurance, under the premise of procurement of worker power-machine-material.
The application scenario of inspection acceptance involves inspectors conducting quality inspections and acceptance of completed lean work package tasks in accordance with acceptance criteria. In this scenario, inspectors assess the quality of the completed tasks and provide feedback to the work team for necessary corrections in case of any quality nonconformities, ensuring compliance with quality standards and requirements. The application scenarios, key activities, and application functions of the category of task execution and inspection are discussed, as given in Table 6.
| Application scenarios | Key activities | Application functions |
|---|---|---|
| Construction operations | The construction team should work on the workface and follow the drawings and work standards to carry out construction operations. | 1. Work standards acquisition. 2. Drawing browsing |
| After receiving lean work package–level tasks, the construction team should execute, and provide feedback on the progress of the tasks. To complete the tasks on time, confirm the completion, and then notify the next lean work package–level task to begin. | 1. Task execution tracking 2. Task completion confirmation and reminder | |
| Inspection and acceptance examination | Preset the required inspection items and query the quality acceptance standards. | 1. Presetting of quality inspection items 2. Querying quality acceptance standards |
| Conduct inspection and acceptance of the inspection items according to the acceptance standards, and record the acceptance results. | Quality acceptance records. | |
| Generate an alert and create a rectification-type task to notify the construction team for rectification, when finding quality nonconformance. | 1. Quality rectification notification 2. Quality rectification tracking 3. Rectification inspection and acceptance |
Implementation of Management Platform for Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
Based on the aforementioned design, a management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase has been developed using the streamlined development tools provided in the Glodon PaaS Platform (GBP), which was developed by Glodon Co. Ltd., with a front-end and back-end separation microservices architecture. The platform interface is shown in Fig. 11.
The GBP provides the technology middleware, data middleware, BIM middleware, and business middleware. The API of the platform allows invoking common technical components of the technology middleware, such as process management, messaging, permission management, reporting, and authorization management. They can also leverage the components provided by the GBP’s business middleware for project management functionalities. For supporting the function development of the application layer, streamlined development tools are used to define and publish business modules for the business logic layer. The basic data, planning data, and execution data of the data layer are established to realize the integration, invoking, and analysis of data by utilizing the GBP data middleware. By utilizing the BIM middleware of the GBP, it was made possible to achieve lightweight processing of BIM models, model parsing, data querying, and visual browsing functionalities.
As far as the database management system is concerned, MySQL is adopted to store and access data. The front-end user interface is implemented using the VUE framework. The back-end is developed using the Java programming language. For mobile applications, the WeChat miniprogram development is adopted to make it easier for project personnel to use.
Verification and Evaluation
Considering that this research falls under the category of design science research, direct and comprehensive validation is challenging. Therefore, a combined approach of expert workshop and typical construction project cases, both of which are normally used in the verification of design science research, has been adopted as the validation method to this study. This process has been determined by referring to the literature (Peffers et al. 2012).
In order to fully leverage the extensive knowledge and practical experience of experts in their respective fields, a comprehensive evaluation of the design outcomes is conducted in the expert workshop. The list of the invited experts was determined according to the following principles and the basic profile of the participating experts is as detailed in Table 7:
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The participating experts should include established academic experts and industry experts in the field of lean construction.
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The selection of experts should be based on a literature review, aiming to choose internationally recognized scholars who are at the forefront of the field and have significant influence.
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Industry experts should ideally include professionals from leading design firms and construction companies. Among them, experts from construction companies should possess extensive experience in construction projects.
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The professional background of the experts should cover the relevant disciplines as much as possible.
| No. | Title | Field | Related experience | Years of work experience |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Professor | Key institutions of higher education | Digital technologies application research | 30 |
| 2 | Professor | Key institutions of higher education | IPD and research on project Implementation framework for project coordination | 25 |
| 3 | Vice general manager | Construction enterprises | Construction technology | 16 |
| 4 | Vice general engineer | Research institute of architectural design standards | Design standardization of BIM | 20 |
| 5 | Chairman | Engineering consulting firm | Information consulting services for the whole life cycle of the project | 25 |
The workshop was divided into four steps, namely research presentation, question and answer, expert evaluation, and issuance of expert argumentation opinions. First of all, a 45-min research presentation session was carried out to introduce the research background of the research project, report the research methodology, put forward the concept of digital lean construction, explain the characteristics, describe the obtained series of models systematically, and summarize the potential value and significance of digital lean construction. In addition, a 30-min question and answer session was held after the presentation to allow experts to fully understand the research results and lay the foundation for subsequent expert evaluation.
Then, an expert evaluation was conducted on the definition and characteristics of digital lean construction, the management model for digital lean in the design phase, and the overall and refinement of the management model for the digital lean construction in the construction phase. Three evaluation indicators of innovativeness, rationality, and feasibility were set, five evaluation levels were assigned to each indicator, and the criteria for each level was expressed on a five-point scale. Based on this, experts gave the score of each index according to their analysis and evaluation. Then, the averaged scoring method is used to find the total score of each evaluation item, and finally obtain the evaluation results by averaging the scores, as shown in Fig. 12.
Generally speaking, the evaluation results of the framework are acceptable as a whole. However, the assessment of feasibility yielded the lowest score of 3.8 points, as shown in Fig. 12, which is not as high as expected. The experts give such a low assessment mainly because it is not easy to determine the lean work packages. We knew this in the experts’ discussion after the assessment. In order to facilitate the determination of lean work packages, a lean work package template library has been established for the management staffs to use, and it has been applied it in typical construction projects, through which the feasibility is thus justified.
Finally, the experts gave the following evaluation opinions after a comprehensive discussion was conducted:
•
This research integrates lean construction with digital technologies and defines the concept of digital lean construction. Based on the concept, a series of models were established, including the model for digital lean construction, management model for the digital lean construction in the design phase, and management model for the digital lean construction in the construction phase, respectively, and the preliminary design of the corresponding management platform was carried out.
•
The concept and the series of models of digital lean construction proposed in this study are full of innovation, rationality, and feasibility, and are of great value for the promotion and application in both practice and research and the development of the management platforms. Meanwhile, it contributes greatly to the promotion of the framework of digital lean construction and the realization of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals in the construction industry in China. As a whole, it contributes to accelerating the transition from lean construction to smart lean construction.
•
This research fills a research gap in the field of lean construction at both within China and worldwide.
•
It is evident that the experts highly evaluated the research outcomes.
In terms of evaluation through typical construction projects, the developed management platform was first applied to the Glodon Xi’an Tower in China, which is the self-built research and industrialization base for the Glodon Company’s smart construction products. The management platform was iteratively optimized throughout the construction and application process of project.
The construction project of the Glodon Xi’an Tower covers an area of approximately , with a total construction area of approximately and 12 stories, and it adopted a framed shear wall structure.
The construction of the project commenced in September 2019, with a construction duration of 3.5 years. It aims not only to become a landmark in Xi’an, China, but also to achieve the goals of green, energy-efficient, healthy, intelligent, and iconic architecture. Additionally, it was dedicated to exploring the goals of the IPD method, lean construction methods, and the integration of digital technologies.
The project was led by Glodon Xi’an Technology Co., Ltd. as the project developer, in collaboration with Huahui Engineering Design Group Co., Ltd. as the design unit. The construction was carried out by Ruisen Construction Co., Ltd. The project was supported by Beijing Guangsheng Engineering Project Management Co., Ltd. as the consulting unit throughout the entire project. A joint project management team was established, which applied the management platform for digital lean construction in this study.
A whole-scale implementation was carried out in the construction project of the Glodon Xi’an Tower. A total of 680 lean work package generation criteria were established, and 21,000 lean work packages were obtained based on these criteria in this project. For each lean work package, the responsible person, inspector, work area, method requirements, and quality acceptance criteria were clearly specified. The lean work package–level tasks were then pushed to the workers’ mobile phones, taking into account the schedule and constraints.
The application of the management system was an obvious success. First of all, under the traditional management mode, the duration of regular meetings, such as daily safety disclosure meetings, weekly meetings, and monthly meetings, as well as various thematic discussions, for project teams was at least 30 min. Due to the application of the digital lean construction management platform, the number of thematic discussions was effectively reduced, a 70% increase in collaboration efficiency for project teams was achieved because of the reduction of the duration of regular meetings.
Second, compared with the management goal of not exceeding 10% of the total project cost in terms of the amount of engineering changes, which is a competitive figure in the industry, the total amount of engineering changes in this project was only 2% of the total project cost, thus reducing the total amount of changes by 80%. Among them, design changes decreased by 20%, schedule changes decreased by 30%, and other changes decreased by 30%.
Third, in terms of construction duration, the planned construction duration was 3.5 years, which was determined as to be the high-than-average level, and the actual construction duration was 3.26 years, which is 6.8% ahead of schedule. Fourth, in terms of cost, the approved investment budget was 660 million RMB, which is quite competitive considering the green requirements for the building are quite high, and the actual completion settlement amount was 657.28 million RMB. As a result, the total investment in the project saved 2.72 million RMB, including a 5% reduction in personnel costs, a reduction in template materials, and a reduction in wood materials. In addition, of concrete material and 17 t of steel material were saved, as demonstrated in Table 8.
| No. | Effectiveness | Indicators |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Reduction in project duration | The actual construction duration is 6.8% ahead of schedule. |
| 2 | Rework reduction | The total amount of changes was reduced by 80%. |
| 3 | Collaboration efficiency improvement | A 70% increase in collaboration efficiency was achieved. |
| 4 | Duration reduction | The duration of curtain wall construction was improved by 60%. |
| 5 | Personnel input reduction | A 5% reduction in personnel costs was reduced. |
| 6 | Material conservation | Reduce template materials by , wood materials by , concrete material by , and steel material by 17 t. |
| 7 | Investment saving | 2.72 million RMB was saved. |
However, the management platform is not a tailored one for a project. In order to prove the generality of the management platform and to continuously iterate it, we validated the effectiveness of the management platform successfully in three other different types of projects, including the Lisui Resettlement Housing project in Beijing, the Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Research and Teaching Park project in Pingyin, Shandong Province, China, and Pingan Home Residence project in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China. Thus, the generality of the management platform has been proven preliminarily.
Conclusions
By integrating lean construction with digital technologies, this research established a new framework for the management of construction projects, namely, the framework of digital lean construction. In the paper, the research background was introduced, and the concept of digital lean construction was defined. Then, the conceptual model and management model for digital lean construction were established. On this basis, the management model for the digital lean construction in the construction phase was refined, and a management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase corresponding to the framework was designed and implemented. Finally, the rationality and effectiveness of the framework of digital lean construction were validated through an expert workshop, and the application of the framework and the management platform in typical construction projects were demonstrated. The following conclusions can be drawn:
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The framework, including the concept and models for digital lean construction, proposed in this paper is not only rational, innovative, and feasible, but also valuable for both the application in practice and research of lean construction.
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The refinement of the management model, the definition of lean work packages, and functional requirement analysis of the management platform provide a solid foundation for the design and implementation of the framework of digital lean construction.
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The designed and implemented management platform can be used to achieve refined management of construction processes in construction projects and facilitate the effective implementation of lean construction principles and successful project delivery.
The framework and management platform contributes not only to the establishment of the theoretical foundation to upgrade lean construction, but also to accelerating the transition from lean construction to smart lean construction. Two directions of future research are expected, i.e., to enhance the integration of the lean tools and digital technologies and clarify the transition to smart lean construction.
Data Availability Statement
All data and models generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Glodon Co. Ltd., Beijing, China.
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Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Volume 150 • Issue 6 • June 2024
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This work is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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Received: Jun 28, 2023
Accepted: Jan 17, 2024
Published online: Apr 10, 2024
Published in print: Jun 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Sep 10, 2024
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