Note: Page numbers followed by f and t indicate figures and tables.
accretion of ice49electrical potentials in freezing/thawing
adhesion force of ice109charge concentration calculations
adhesive force112charge concentration calculations
Alaskan Meteor Burst Communications System (AMBCS)103
Bjerrum defect64
Bulgunniakhs. See Pingoscharge:development in ice crystals13
transport107potential measurements
charge concentration calculations109
calculation of adhesive force112
contact potential difference110
density of electrons111
electron flow109
field and electron density in dielectric109–110
force of adhesion F expressed in MPa112
tforce of adhesion of ice109
values of No and Xo for (Φ-χ)112
tcharges carried by flowing air stream7
charge separation8
electricity change based on rain character10
felectricity of clouds and rain9
energy of lightning flash9
Franklin experiments8–9
hydrometeor8
induced charge on each half of spherical drop7
negative charges in cumulus clouds8
power in thunderstorm electricity8
Simpson experiments9–10
thunderstorms in cold regions7
charge separationelectric charge separation
Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory (CRREL)117
conductivity of earth materials118electrical resistivity
contact potential27
difference110
experimental setup to study28
fbetween solids and liquids33charge concentration calculations
Coulomb's law105–107potential measurements
crystalline clay mineral groups43electrical freezing potential in soils
current density107potential measurements
currents during high geomagnetic activity53electrical potentials in freezing/thawing
decay of potential after peak63
density of electrons111charge concentration calculations
dielectric measurements of frozen silt121–122time-domain reflectometry
dipole107potential measurements
dipole moment107potential measurements
direct-current (DC)115
resistivity methods115–116electrical methods
Division of Building Research55
electric:capacitance tomography119
current107
field106
field of dipole107
flux107electrical resistivity
potential measurementselectrical charges:in clouds4–5
during freezing14, 21
during precipitation14
electrical conductivity118
electrical freezing potential (EFP)1, 3, 17, 27, 77
change in42
fcharge separation during freezing21
experimental set up to study electric charge separation20
ffreezing potentials observed18
t, 19
t–20
t, 20–21
as function of concentrations29
fas function of rate of cooling in pure water61
f, 62
highest values of18
ice-positive potentials20
magnitude and sign of17, 65
measurements2, 101
Murphy's apparatus to measure potentials during freezing28
fobserved by Hanley and Rao46
fstudy of55
and thawing potentials in water and CaCl2 solutions75
tthunderstorm electrification in atmosphere31
in water18
t, 30
t, 73
fWorkman–Reynolds effect17
electrical freezing potential in aqueous solutions31
contact potentials between solids and liquids33
in dilute solutions19
t–20
t, 32
t–33
telectrical charge separation in cloud31
experimental cell to study34
fGerardo Wolfgang Gross experimental arrangement21
fby Korkina's measurement in freezing dilute solutions21, 22
fmeasured in various solutions29
measurements in water and dilute solutions17–24
thermo-dielectric effect33
uncertainties in measurements33–34
voltage change in NH4OH solution23
fvoltage in NaCl solutions24
fvoltage variation due to distance between electrodes22
felectrical freezing potential in soils37, 38
t–39
t, 44
fargillaceous rocks37
clay37
crystalline clay mineral groups43
currents measured during freezing of moist clay47
fDunellen Clay37
electric charge distribution in freezing sample42
fequipment to study EFP in moist clay45
fvs. moisture content43
fpotential difference variation between electrodes40
f, 41
fpotential gradient41
fsand and kaolin37
in sand with moisture59
f, 60
fsandy soils40
in silty soil61
f, 62
electrical grounding in cold regions118electrical resistivity
electrical methods115
direct current resistivity methods115–116
electromagnetic techniques116
induced-polarization methods116
self-potential method116geophysical methods
electrical phenomena in nature3
charge separation in clouds4
electrical charges in clouds4–5
phenomenon3
photoelectric effect on ice crystals4
problem in early 1950s3
electrical potentials101
justification for investigations on103
electrical potentials in freezing/thawing49
accretion of ice49
currents during high geomagnetic activity53
formation of thick-layered ground ice49
freezing potentials observed in soils50
t–51
tgeoelectrical fields in freezing ground53
ground temperature envelope and unfrozen water content with depth52
fhumates53
streaming potential52freeze–thaw studies
electrical resistivity (ER)117
conductivity of earth materials118
electrical capacitance tomography119
electrical grounding in cold regions118
ERT and borehole measurements119
ERT study119
IP and SP methods119
resistivity of frozen soil118
thermo-hydro-mechanical processes in permafrost areas118–119geophysical methods
electrical resistivity imaging (ERI)117, 120, 123
electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)117
and borehole measurements119
study119
electric charge separation27
calculation of109
in cloud31
effect8
experimental arrangement to study20
fduring freezing21
mechanisms in clouds4
nature of33–34
in polar molecule27
electricity change based on rain character10
electricity of clouds and rain9
electromagnetic induction (EMI)120, 123
electromagnetic techniques116electrical methods
electromagnetic wave velocity122time-domain reflectometry
electron density111
in dielectric109–110charge concentration calculations
electron flow109charge concentration calculations
energy106
lightning flash9potential measurements
field and electron density in dielectric109–110charge concentration calculations
field studies77
assembled probe94
fEFP in freezing lakes91–94
electrical potential probe and switch box82
felectrodes and thermistors locations in study site80
f, 84
festimated ice thickness in Upland and Delta Lakes97
ffreezing potentials measured in lakes98
fIllisarvik site77–80, 78
f, 87
Inuvik site80, 85
f, 87
lakes in Mackenzie Delta area93
fMackenzie Delta area92
f, 93
fPingo 977, 78
f, 79
fpotential drop across ice98
fprobe in Upland Lake site94
fprobe locations83
frelative positions of electrodes and thermistors in Pingo 981
fresults and discussions of field studies87–90, 97–99
temperature and freezing voltages89
fvoltage and temperatures88
fforce on charge106potential measurements
Franklin, Benjamin8
experiments of8–9
freeze–thaw studies69
experimental cell69, 70
ffreezing and thawing potentials in water and CaCl2 solutions75
tfreezing potential variations in pure water74
fpotentials measured in dilute solution of CaCl272
fpotentials measured in pure water71
f, 73
fshorting potential70electrical potentials in freezing/thawing
freezing potentialelectrical freezing potential
frequency123time-domain reflectometry
frequency-domain EM systems (FDEMs)116
frozen soil resistivity118electrical resistivity
galvanic resistivity (GR)120geophysical methods
gamma-ray attenuation123time-domain reflectometry
Gauss's Law107potential measurements
geoelectrical fields in freezing ground53electrical potentials in freezing/thawing
geophysical methods115
applications117
electrical methods115–117
electrical resistivity117–120
galvanic resistivity data120
surface geophysical methods120–121
talik115
Thermokarst lakes115
time-domain reflectometry121–124
geotechnical methods1
Gerardo Wolfgang Gross experimental arrangement21
fGibb's fundamental equation60, 67
glazing13
ground105potential measurements
ground-penetrating radar (GPR)120, 121, 123, 124
humates53electrical potentials in freezing/thawing
Hydrolaccoliths. See Pingoshydrometeor8
ice-positive potentials20, 27electrical freezing potential
Illisarvik site77–80, 78
f, 87
location of electrodes and thermistors80
f, 81
fPingo 977, 78
f, 79
fresults and discussions of field studies87–90field studies
induced charge on each half of spherical drop7
induced-polarization (IP) methods115, 116, 119electrical methods
Institute for Research in ConstructionDivision of Building Research
Inuvik site80, 87
electrical potential probe and switch box82
ffield studies of EFP in freezing lakes91–94
location of electrodes and thermistors84
fprobes and recorders83
f, 85
fresults97–99field studies
ionic solutions3
Korkina's measurement of EFP21, 22
f, 27electrical freezing potential
meteor burst communications (MBC)101
meteors102
meteor scatter propagation102
fscientific use102–103
snow depth data103
working mechanism102SNOTEL
meteors102
meteor scatter communicationsmeteor burst communications
moist soils, experiments in65–66National Research Council Canada
moisture migration61
Murphy's apparatus to measure potentials28
fNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)13
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)13
National Research Council Canada55
band scheme at metal–dielectric interface62
fBjerrum defect64
decay of freezing voltage for ice63
f, 64
fdecay of potential after peak63
decay of voltage in freezing sand65
fEFP variation with time in pure water58
fequipment to measure freezing potential and temperature57
f, 57–58
experimental setup in NRCC laboratories56–65
experiments in moist soils65–66
freezing potential as function of rate of cooling in pure water61
f, 62
freezing potential measured in laboratory59
ffreezing potentials in silty soil61
f, 62
freezing potentials measured in sand with moisture59
f, 60
fGibb's fundamental equation60, 67
laboratory setup to measure EFP56
fmagnitudes of freezing potentials65
maximum potential64
moisture migration61
potential reversal60, 67
principle of voltage generation during freezing62
relaxation times63
results from piles embedded in water and soils58
streaming potentials61, 67
variation of voltage and temperature66
fNatural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)101
negative charges in cumulus clouds8
NRC-Construction Research CenterDivision of Building Research
Ohm's Law107potential measurements
peak or maximum potential64
permafrost1
aggradation123–124geophysical methods
time-domain reflectometryphotoelectric effect on ice crystals4
Pingos1–2
polyvinyl chloride (PVC)69
potential106
decay after peak63
gradient106potential measurements
potential measurements105
charge transport and electric current107
Coulomb's law105–107
current density107
dipole moment107
electric field106
electric flux and Gauss's law107
energy106
force on charge106
Gauss's Law107
ground105
Ohm's Law107
potential gradient106
work106
potential reversal60
while freezing67National Research Council Canada
power9
in thunderstorm electricity8
radio-frequency transmitter122
radio-magneto-telluric (RMT) method116
relaxation times63
riming13
self-potential (SP)115
method116electrical methods
Simpson experiments9–10
SIPRE27
SNOTEL101
meteor scatter propagation as used by102
fmeteor burst communications
snow depth data103
spectral-induced polarization (SIP)115, 119
method116electrical methods
streaming potentials61, 67
surface geophysical methods120
ground-penetrating radar121
permafrost distribution study120geophysical methods
talik115geophysical methods
thermo-dielectric effect33
thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM)118
processes118–119electrical resistivity
Thermokarst lakes115
thick-layered ground ice formation49electrical potentials in freezing/thawing
thunderstorm:in cold regions7
electrification in atmosphere31
power in thunderstorm electricity8
time-domain electromagnetic systems (TDEMs)116
time-domain reflectometry (TDR)121
dielectric measurements of frozen silt121–122
equipment for122–123
frequency123
gamma-ray attenuation123
ground-penetrating radar124
measuring water content in soil123
permafrost aggradation123–124
principles and applications121–124
velocity of electromagnetic waves122geophysical methods
US Department of Agriculture (USDA)102
velocity of electromagnetic waves122time-domain reflectometry
very low frequencies (VLFs)116
voltage7, 120
change in NH4OH solution23
fdeveloped in NaCl solutions24
fgeneration during freezing and ice formation62
variation due to distance between electrodes22
fWatts9
work106potential measurements
Workman–Reynolds effect17
