Coastal Engineering Practice (2011)

Rising sea level represents a persistent coastal hazard due to the concentration of infrastructure and population along the World's shorelines. Methods of shoreline stabilization are limited and if sea level accelerates in the early 21^st Century as many suggest, strategies will need to be developed and implemented on an expedited time frame. Here, to lay a foundation for improved understanding of sea level change, we address the question of whether sea level has accelerated over the approximate 20^th Century. Two data groups from 57 U. S. tide gauges with monthly records were selected for analysis by two methods resulting in four combinations of data groups and analysis methods. The criterion for inclusion of individual tide records was a maximum of 5% missing data. One of the data groups extended from 1930 to 2010 and the other from 1910 to 2010. Analysis Method 1 (AM1) comprised a monthly running analysis of the average record of a data group to determine the sea level trend and acceleration, thereby allowing the effect of record length to be examined. AM2 conducted the same analysis on individual records followed by averaging the trends and accelerations. The sea level trend stabilized after approximately 55 years; however, the acceleration continued to oscillate over a small range of the full period analyzed. Overall, the accelerations appear to be very small and negative such that their contribution to sea level rise over a century would be about 1 cm. The results obtained from the two analysis methods and two data groups were consistent, thereby lending credence to the results. Finally, a recent study by Houston and Dean (2011) of global accelerations over the 20^th Century found similar results.

The use of Advanced Fiber Wrap Composite systems has been widely used in buildings and bridges during the past two decades. As the global structural engineering community has adopted this technology, so has the coastal infrastructure community. This paper will cover in detail the use of this relatively novel technology in the repair and protection of timber piles. The pier structure, which is used for commercial purposes, was severely deteriorated due to the aggressive environmental conditions and the age of the structure. Advanced Fiber Wrap Composite Systems were being utilized to supplement confinement, and to provide protection to selected timber pile elements. Also, the use of special epoxy resins and proven repair methods which were implemented as part of the retrofit will be discussed. The aim of this paper will be to discuss the Advanced Fiber Wrap Composite Systems method of repair and to compare with the current alternative conventional methods of repair. The benefits and deterrents for the different repair methods which were discussed by the engineer of record and owner alike will be discussed both from the construction, structural, and from the financial standpoint. The project that will be discussed is on the Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada waterfront. Part of the scope for this project consisted of working from floating platforms to execute the repair of the piles. Underwater divers were also brought on to apply the Fiber Wrap System under water in the tidal zone. The FRP applicator successfully completed the project within schedule and on budget.

Kaumalapau Harbor is a small barge harbor located on the southwest coast of the island of Lanai in the State of Hawaii, U.S.A. The harbor was protected by an old, deteriorated, rock rubblemound breakwater, originally constructed in 1925. The breakwater was recently completely rebuilt by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Honolulu District, in association with the State of Hawaii. Oceanographic design considerations included a water depth of about 21 m (70 ft) and direct exposure to possible 10.7 m (35 ft) hurricane strength storm waves. The repairs utilized an armor layer of 31.8 tonne (35 ton) Core-Loc^TM concrete armor units, the largest units of this type used to-date. The use of Core-Loc units, a relatively new armor unit type, presented both design and construction challenges to insure that their performance capability was maximized. Particular attention was placed on developing a Core-Loc placement plan to achieve the required unit packing density, and utilizing rigorous construction techniques to achieve the specified armor layer placement. This project contributed significantly toward furthering design and construction guidelines for Core-Loc use. Construction was completed in 2007, and the project won the ASCE, Hawaii Section, 2008 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award.

The Tutong River entrance on the Brunei coastline, presents navigational problems due to a sandbar obstructing the majority of the channel. While the existing western training wall is damaged, the eastern training wall is filled to capacity by the predominant westward littoral drift of sand. The Water Research Laboratory (WRL) of the University of New South Wales has provided specialist advice in the engineering design of the Tutong River training works for the stabilisation of the river mouth. In this paper, we present the different studies undertaken including: 1. the field data collection undertaken on the Tutong River estuary; 2. the sediment transport assessment and littoral drift modelling; 3. the hydrodynamic modelling of the lower Tutong River estuary; 4. the physical modelling of the proposed training walls for armour stability and wave penetration.

Sandy beaches of the Russian Black Sea coast, Anapa bay-bar, represent the huge value as a recreational zone and as a unique natural complex. In this paper, the results of field researches in southern part of Anapa bay-bar are presented. The quantitative characteristics of lithodynamic processes are received, the estimation of possible influence of anthropogenous and natural factors on flows of a sandy material is given. Based on the received data the mathematical modeling with the purpose of the coast evolution and the bay-bar sandy body thickness change forecast is performed. Potential danger of degradation of the investigated area ecosystem is revealed.

Pavement failures occurred behind the retaining Wall at Pier 11A (former Navy Pier) in San Diego, California. The pavement failures were caused by a loss of soil directly beneath the pavement. It was presumed that the soil in the retaining wall was leaking through the tongue-and-groove joints between the concrete sheet piles located beneath the retaining wall footing, allowing water in, as well as marine borers that ate away the exposed portions of the timber piles, resulting in loss of timber pile support to the retaining walls. Inspection of the front of the retaining wall below the wharf deck revealed a regular pattern of cracks in the pile cap beams extending from the retaining wall to the pile-supported wharf. Jet grouting was successfully used to re-establish the structural support of the footing to the competent timber piles, and to fill the existing void spaces directly under the pile cap. This paper covers the test section, design, construction, and quality control measures on this challenging project.

Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, Coastal Engineering Section has developed numerous innovative designs for Alaska's arctic conditions and exposed shorelines. Case studies of ten challenging projects designed and constructed over the past 25 years will be presented; including a heliport at Little Diomede; buried cutoff wall for an airport at Gambell; 10 miles of shore protection for Seward Highway exposed to tidal bores and ice; energy absorbing pile guides for extreme wave conditions; and a dynamically stable beach at Unalakleet. Due to increasingly high costs for large armor, recent projects have relied more heavily on dynamic stability and softer designs. Most of these projects were constructed in remote areas of Alaska with little data available. Each case study will discuss challenges, technical design elements, and specific arctic coastal considerations. Designing in concert with site-specific conditions allows structures to survive and natural coastal processes to continue.

The deterioration of concrete structures in marine environments due to corrosion may result in costly and inconvenient maintenance. This paper presents information on corrosion mechanisms of steel in concrete and factors affecting corrosion performance. Information is also presented on concrete modification and other systems that increase the durability of concrete structures in corrosive environments. These include pozzolans and galvanized, epoxy-coated, and stainless steel (SS) reinforcing. Finally, the paper discusses other factors, such as sustainability, cost and availability of the various commonly used products.

The Inner Harbor Navigation (IHNC) Surge Barrier project will provide 1.0% chance exceedance (or 100-year) storm risk reduction to eastern New Orleans from powerful hurricane storm surges and waves from the Gulf of Mexico. Two navigation gates along the 2.7 km surge barrier can be closed to prevent water surging up the IHNC into the heart of the city. This paper discusses the methodology to derive the hydraulic boundary conditions for design, including the deterministic methods and physical and numerical modeling used for verification and investigation of other specific design purposes. Probabilistic synthetic storms were used to provide initial storm surge and wave climate characteristics. Deterministic calculations were then used to shoal waves and calculated wave loads and overtopping. 2-D and 3-D 1:20 Froude scaled physical models were employed to verify hydrodynamic loading and stability, while also allowing investigation of characteristic overtopping and scour. Additionally, depth averaged RMA2 modeling was utilized for investigation of localized affects to navigation through the gates.

Orchard Beach is a man-made, self contained sandy pocket completely dissimilar to the natural formation of the shoreline on which it is situated. The beach was created by connecting two rocky headlands with 4,000 feet of rock-filled crib seawall and concrete promenade, and backfilled with 1.2 million cubic yards of sand. Original construction was done between 1935 and 1937 by the City of New York, under the direction of Robert Moses. The beach was expanded 1,000 ft and two new rock terminal groins were added in 1949. Beach nourishments were performed in 1949 and 1964. The crescent shape beach is relatively stable due to low wave and current action; however, severe storms can overtop the berm and the crest of the promenade. For nearly 50 years since the last nourishment, the beach retained its integrity; however, by the early 2000's the shoreline had shifted from north to south, resulting in a narrower and milder beach to the north and a wider and steeper beach to the south. In addition, formation of a large scour area with an abrupt drop-off slope presented a safety concern to swimmers. The beach is in the populated New York City metropolitan area and is frequented by 2.5 million visitors annually. During the summer season, the beach was overcrowded. Due to the gradual loss of sand to the north and a large 7 to 9 ft tidal range, beachgoers had little beach space during high tide and needed to wade out a long distance to reach the water during low tide. In 2009, USACE prepared the final construction plan for a beach nourishment and upgrade of the southern rock groin, and reached financial agreement with the New York City Parks & Recreation Department. The project was successfully bid by Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Co. (GLDD). Construction commenced on 30^th October 2010 and was completed on 28^th January, 2011.

Following hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) began to design and construct the Hurricane and Storm Damage Risk Reduction System (HSDRRS) for Southeast Louisiana. A key feature of the HSDRRS is the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal (IHNC) Lake Borgne Surge Barrier. The surge barrier is part of a larger program designed to provide a 100-year level of defense to a large portion of Orleans and St. Bernard parishes by reducing the effect of storm surge coming from the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Borgne. The 10,000-foot (3050-meter) long, 26-foot (8-meter) high surge barrier includes three gate structures and a barrier wall. The project is being constructed approximately eight miles (13 kilometers) east of downtown New Orleans, near the confluence of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway (GIWW) and the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO). The entire barrier and all three gates are currently scheduled to be functional by June 2011. This paper presents a description of challenges encountered by the design-build team, integration of design, procurement, and construction to meet an accelerated schedule and some of the unique methods used to construct the project.

In agreements reached with the Port of San Diego and the California Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB), a 9.2-acre engineered (geotextile, sand, gravel, and rock armor) cap was constructed and completed in 2008 to isolate contaminated sediments at the Former Campbell Shipyard Site, San Diego Bay, San Diego, California. The cap included a special 1.6-acre eelgrass habitat cap. Using novel sediment and pore water monitoring stations installed in the cap, samples collected during the first 3 years of a 20-year mandated monitoring and reporting program indicate that the cap has been effective in retaining all constituents of concern (COCs). Monitored COCs include copper, lead, zinc, total PAHs, PCBs, total TPH, and butyltins.

In 2010, Indian River County initiated restoration of the 6.6 miles of beach and dune known as the Sector 3 Project, which utilized previously untried technologies in that the Project: (1) was innovatively designed to avoid impacts to nearshore hardbottom, (2) was bid to allow construction via use of an offshore borrow area or upland sand mines as alternate sand sources, and (3) employed innovative sand mining processes to construct the Project meeting stringent sand quality control specifications. The Project is presented as a case study to demonstrate: (1) the nuances of the design and construction, (2) comparison of the predicted performance and that reflected in monitoring data, and (3) conclusions in the form of lessons learned relative to coastal engineering practices for beach and dune restoration.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) San Francisco District (SPN) and Coastal Inlets Research Program (CIRP) are presently performing hydrodynamics, wave, and sediment transport numerical modeling study with the Coastal Modeling System (CMS) to evaluate a designated dredged-material placement site nearshore the beach erosion hot spot and onshore nourishment alternatives on Ocean Beach, California. Both model results and measurements reveal that tidal forcing is the main process in the nearshore area where the tidal current is predominantly along the shoreline. The calculated sediment transport shows more longshore movement than cross-shore shoreward the dredged-material placement site. The model result also indicates significant sediment erosion at Ocean Beach.

The Regional Beach Sand Project, conducted by the San Diego Association of Governments in 2001, provided 1.6 million cubic meters of beach-quality sand to twelve receiver sites. Beach profile survey results were used to assess the shorezone changes and document the evolution of the San Diego County's beaches following the placement of the nourishment material. The analysis focused primarily on changes in shoreline position and sediment volume. The placement and subsequent dispersal of the beach nourishment material produced shoreline advances and sediment volume gains, some of which that have persisted to this day. Equally important, the RBSP demonstrated that San Diego County and its coastal cities can collaborate to implement a successful regional beach nourishment project.

Deterioration of reinforced concrete structures is a problem in coastal climates. Most of this deterioration is caused by chloride ingress through the concrete, which results in the corrosion of the reinforcing steel and spalling of the cover concrete. The practice of modeling chloride ingress to understand this deterioration process is increasing as engineers work to improve the durability of concrete. The authors present examples of deteriorated structures, modeling results for new structures and examples of current projects along the coastal LOSSAN rail corridor between Los Angeles and San Diego in San Diego County. The conclusion is that by specifying the addition of fly ash, silica fume and corrosion inhibitors in concrete, subject to temperate marine exposure conditions, we are able to increase the predicted service life of new structures to 100 years.

The Hawaii Kai Marina (marina) is located on the southern coast of Oahu, approximately 12 miles east of downtown Honolulu. The entrance channel to the marina experiences significant sand deposition and shoaling, which interfered with navigation many times in past years, and requires repeated episodes of sand removal. Shoaling within the marina occurs at a much slower rate but, also requires attention. The case study presented herein presents the formulation of a plan to dredge both the entrance channel and the marina interior, while maximizing the beneficial reuse and on-site disposal of the dredged materials. This paper also discusses the ongoing investigation of sustainable management schemes for sand deposition in the entrance channel, and reviews some of the environmental and design challenges that are unique to this location in Hawaii.

This paper reviews the history of North America's first man-made surfing reef with the intent of informing the planning, implementation, and removal of man-made structures in the nearshore zone. The most positive outcome of the project was the recognition by regulatory agencies that natural surf breaks represent finite recreational resources worthy of preservation or, if necessary, mitigation. Conversely, the failure of Pratte's Reef to produce a sustained improvement in surf quality highlights the fact that nearshore reef structures are in the early stages of development. Until a substantial body of experience is acquired, they should be considered experimental and prone to unintended outcomes. A key lesson learned from Pratte's Reef relates to the difficulty and cost of removing geotextile containers from the nearshore environment. While geotextiles can be recovered with relative ease if they are located within reach of conventional earth-moving equipment operated from shore, the removal process is time-consuming, costly, and incomplete if the containers lie offshore. The result, in the case of Pratte's Reef, was a removal cost that matched the installation cost.

The coastal environment is host to a large number and variety of disposal facilities, including dredge disposal sites and landfill sites. Because these sites are commonly located over weak foundation soils, it is difficult to maximize the disposal capacity without risking foundation instability or general instability and, as a result, the disposal capacity of these sites is often not maximized. Recent advances in foundation improvement and design, though, have made it possible to significantly, and reliably, extend the service life of coastal disposal sites. The purpose of this paper is to describe the challenges faced by disposal facilities that are designed in coastal environments and to present a case history of a recent construction project at the confluence of two rivers in which substantial additional service life was provided using innovative design techniques and comprehensive construction oversight which resulted in construction cost savings well over ninety percent when compared to the original conventional design. The successful design and construction over extremely soft dredge using innovative design and construction techniques described in this paper opens opportunities not only for extending the life of disposal facilities next to riverfront environments but also for raising levees and dikes cost effectively at critical locations that are prone to flooding.

Information regarding the operation, maintenance, and repair of a number of major coastal wastewater outfalls has been provided to the authors by representatives of the responsible operating organizations. The outfalls for San Francisco, Boston, Los Angeles County, and San Diego are discussed herein.

The San Elijo Lagoon Ecological Reserve is located within the City of Encinitas in San Diego County, California. The Reserve provides habitat for sensitive, threatened, and endangered species, as well as recreational opportunities. Due to development, the ecological function of the lagoon has been degraded. The San Elijo Lagoon Restoration Project is an effort to restore the lagoon functions and values. Four new alternatives are proposed. Two of them will use the tidal inlet at its current location and the other two will have a new, wider and deeper tidal inlet located south of its current location. RMA2 tidal and flood hydrodynamic modeling studies were performed. The results indicate that alternatives with the new tidal inlet can provide better tidal flushing, support a broader vertical range of salt marsh habitat, significantly lower the flood water level, and avoid flooding of a perimeter road during the 100-year storm event. RMA4 water quality modeling results indicate that alternatives with the new inlet would dramatically reduce the residence time, the duration of bacteria exceedance in the Lagoon and nearshore ocean, the salinity concentration recovery time after rain events, the travel time of nutrients and fine sediment through lagoon, and sedimentation in the Lagoon.

In this paper an overview of the numerical modeling applications for marine-coastal waters, carried out at ARPA FVG, the Environmental Protection Agency of the Friuli Venezia Giulia Region, is given according with the European Directives. The aim of these modeling applications is to identify andd assess the critical factors (pressure sources) that may condition water quality from the microbiological point of view and to investigate the impact on the marine-coastal waters and on the shellfish farmings and bathing activities that are present along the coast of the Friuli Venezia Giulia, in the north-eastern part of Italy. The finite element model SHYFEM, developed at ISMAR-CNR in Venice, has been implemented and applied to investigate the bacterial dispersion, taking into account Escherichia coli as a tracer. Results of modeling and data analysis are discussed in order to better understand the mechanisms that may influence water quality.

As a component of the Masonville Dredged Material Containment Facility (DMCF) project, the Maryland Port Administration (MPA) was required to develop a compensatory mitigation package to offset impacts associated with filling approximately 53 hectares (130 acres) of open water in the Patapsco River, which is a major tributary to the Chesapeake Bay. The mitigation is a comprehensive package of inwater and upland projects totaling over $20 million. The majority of mitigation is located adjacent to the DMCF in the 29 hectares (71 acres) of open water and 22 hectares (54 acres) of uplands that comprise Masonville Cove. The projects serve to enhance existing resources and provide improved habitat and increased wildlife use of the area, in addition to remediating contamination from historical industrial usage and dumping. The project will also provide opportunities for community-based environmental education to promote stewardship of the Bay waters for the local citizens. The mitigation projects discussed in this paper include shoreline stabilization and erosion control, reef creation and substrate improvement, and creation and enhancement of tidal and non-tidal wetlands. Design development concepts for these projects are presented. Following construction of the mitigation projects within the Cove, the area will be placed into a conservation easement and opened as an urban wildlife conservation area, environmental education center and natural park. The size and location of the Cove within Baltimore City make it a unique site for wildlife habitat and opportunity for the public to connect with the natural environment. The area is also a designated habitat protection area in the City and is in the Critical Area Resource Conservation Area.

River runoff is the main source of nutrients and man-made pollutants that affects functioning of biological communities. About a thousand small and medium rivers flow into the Black Sea, and while their contribution in total sea balance is significant, there are no systematic observations on that matter. This work presents the studies carried out in 2006–2010 in coastal area of the north-eastern Black Sea. Attention is focused on studies in 2009 near the Greater Sochi region, since two major local rivers, Kudepsta and Mzymta, significantly differ in composition, which allows tracing the inflow of each individual river and estimating their fractional contribution to formation of surface water structure. Influence of river runoff on hydrochemical balance of nearshore water is demonstrated, with estimations of amount of dissolved carbon, alkalinity, silicate, dissolved oxygen and pH. Development of the river plume is traced, along with its reaction on wind direction and shelf circulations.

The restoration of Malibu Lagoon is an excellent case study example of the important and critical role that engineers can, and very often do, play in coastal restoration efforts in California. This case study analysis offers many lessons learned for the engineer that can inform how best to be involved in the development and implementation of coastal restoration projects. These lessons learned can be applied to other coastal restoration projects in California and nationally. This paper focuses on the roles and services that coastal engineering can provide in larger interdisciplinary restoration teams and in efforts to restore coastal resources and the many challenges faced in attempting to provide value-added services. It examines the complex project management structure required to be in place to plan for and implement the restoration project, focused on the need for, and roles, engineers have played in the distinct planning and implementation phases, and it documents and analyzes the specific factors contributing to successful restoration planning and implementation efforts, including importantly the role of technical expertise and the contribution that engineers make to project success.

Detailed hydrodynamic and water quality modeling studies were conducted for the purpose of evaluating the waterfront development alternatives that the Bay of Dreams LLC (Owner) was contemplating for their real estate development at the Bahia de los Sueños, Baja California, Mexico. The Corps approved RMA2 and RMA4 models were used, and a tidal hydraulic model was developed in the studies. The water quality between different lagoon alternatives was evaluated based on the two indicators including the water exchange time and the constituent residence time. The environmental impact of a brine discharge from the planned Reverse Osmosis (RO) seawater desalination plant on the marine environment was assessed.

Knik Arm, an extension of Upper Cook Inlet, with the world's second highest tides, seasonal ice cover, and prodigious sediment load, presents unique challenges to the design and construction of a highway crossing. The current concept for a proposed Knik Arm Crossing (KAC) structure includes earthen-fill approaches from either side, connected by an 8,180 ft (2,493 m) pile-supported bridge, to span the 12,500-ft (3,810 m) width of Knik Arm at the preferred alignment. Described herein are the methods, results and conclusions of analyses performed for an assessment of the effects of KAC on the hydraulic environment of Knik Arm. Principal effects include increases in maximum current speed of ≤10% within 1.3 mi. ( 2.2 km) of KAC. Except for expected sediment accumulations on both sides of the earthen-fill portions of KAC, no significant changes in sedimentation processes are expected beyond the immediate vicinity of KAC.

To date, proper design guidelines and codes are somewhat incomplete with respect to addressing natural coastal hazards such as tsunamis in the design of marine projects. This paper illustrates how a way forward was devised by specifically elaborating on tsunami-induced loads within the context of the Crescent City marina rehabilitation. Specifically, the methodology implemented herein focuses on defining a set of reasonable design hydrodynamic loads for floating and fixed structures in the Crescent City harbor. This task is part of an on-going master plan initiated after the 2006 Kuril Island tsunami. The technical focus is on establishing the direct effects of a tsunami wave upon moored vessels, floats, and pilings. The purpose is to mitigate tsunami damage by adequately designing all constitutive elements of the rehabilitated marina. This analysis is at the interface between large-scale models of tsunami propagation and the need of marine structural designers for robust loading constraints. To do so, a Boussinesq model is deployed. An overview of the results gathered from the numerical simulations is presented, along with a summary of structural solutions retained to mitigate future damage. More broadly, the work and analysis described in this paper show that the application of a judiciously parameterized conventional numerical model is capable of delivering readily-useable loads that are in good agreement with observed eyewitness measurements of tsunami action. In doing so, we hope to show that the inclusion of tsunami loads within design codes can be achieved efficiently.

We have developed an operational oceanographic system for the southern coastal waters of Korea as a part of the development of Korea Operational Oceanographic System (KOOS). The operational oceanographic system consists of atmospheric and hydrodynamic models coupled with three-dimensional hydrodynamics, wave, sediment transport and water quality modules. The forecasting system focuses on the southern coastal waters of Korea which are very shallow with complex coastal lines and hundreds of islands. The operational modeling system of the southern coastal waters of Korea uses 3-D operational model ROMS (Haidvogel et al., 2008) which is 2-way coupled with SWAN for waves, nested with WRF for meteorological surface forcing, internally linked with sediment transport (Warner et al., 2008), and externally linked with CE-QUAL-ICM (Cerco and Cole, 1993, Kim et al., 2011) for water quality etc. The forecasting system provides predicted oceanographic data and warning of storm surge occurrence two times a day in the 72-hours base for the public through a web-GIS based coastal information system.

The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig on April 20, 2010, and the subsequent events leading to the nation's largest oil spill in recorded history, illuminated a threat not typically included in any practitioner's list of coastal hazards: oil fouling thousands of miles of gulf coastline, habitat, fisheries, and recreational areas. Much uncertainty paralyzed early efforts to contain the spill at the source, and it soon became evident that containment strategies would be focused on preventing surface oil from fouling marshes, wetlands, beaches, bays, bayous, and estuaries. A number of containment strategies and efforts were employed to protect Alabama's 1000 km of tidally influenced shoreline. Some strategies actively contained surface oils (e.g. booms, skimming), others were more passive (e.g. beach cleaning), and still others modified the properties of the oil to enhance degradation (e.g. dispersant). A considerable amount of time, effort, and money was spent on containment efforts and coastal defenses in Alabama during the nearly three-month period following the initial explosion and leak of the Macondo well. The benefit of hindsight affords an opportunity to look back at some of the coastal projects and identify areas for improvement, as well as compare the relative efficacy of proactive and reactive strategies. Along with a general discussion of various impacts to Alabama's coastal resources as a result of the oil spill, four unique coastal projects will be highlighted: the construction of containment measures on Dauphin Island; the closure of a barrier island breach; the closure of a tidal inlet; and the implementation of a novel, robust boom system for Perdido Pass.

The City of Newport Beach (City), a highly developed, densely populated coastal city in southern California is periodically subject to flooding from coincident high tides and waves. To prepare for sea level rise and potential flood damages, the City initiated a study to assess the potential flood impact to Balboa Island and Little Balboa Island. A recently developed 2D flood simulation model is utilized to investigate the effect of high tides occurring with increased sea levels. Additionally, a simple wave overtopping model is proposed to account for the effect of wind waves and ocean swells. The results of the flood model simulations were used to help the City to formulate flood inundation mitigation alternatives.

Understanding of storm wave behaviour is critical to the development of appropriate coastal hydrodynamic models to assess risk management and mitigation strategies in response to problems such as coastal inundation and erosion. This is becoming increasingly important in the present age of accelerated global warming where it is expected that there will be an increase in the intensity of severe weather events such as tropical cyclones. One of the main problems in storm wave predictions is the lack of availability of sufficient field data for used in calibrating and verifying models. Most of the existing models have been validated based on laboratory works and as such are not entirely representative of storm wave conditions experienced in the field. This paper, presents a novel approach to the collection and analysis of field data under two different storm events which hits south-east Queensland in 2009, namely Tropical Cyclone Hamish and an East Coast Low. Results of these two severe storms are added to a data set collected in calm condition and in order to extracting new formulation of γ_s.

Typhoon is the most serious natural disaster in Korean coastal area. Many peoples died by storm surge inundation every year. And typhoon caused a lot of damage to property. Climate changes due to global warming are producing a stronger natural disaster. Coastal zones have been damaged by typhoons and accompanying storm surge. Especially, the most serious loss of life and terrible propertydamage caused by typhoon Maemi in 2003. After then, there has been an increased interest in these coastal zone problems. If storm surges coincide with high tides, the loss of life and property damage due to high waters arc even worse. Therefore it is desirable to accurately forecast the amount water level increase. In this study, using a numerical model FVCOM(finite volume coastal circulation model, Chen et al., 2004), storm surge was simulated to examine its fluctuation characteristics for the coastal area behind Masan, Yeosu and Busan city in Korea. In the numerical model, a moving boundary condition(wet-dry treatment) was incorporated to explain wave inundation. Numerically predicted inundation regimes and depths were compared with measurements from a tidal gage each area. Comparisons of the numerical results and measured data shows a good correlation. The numerical model adopted in this study is expected to be a useful tool for analysis of storm surges, and for predicting inundation regimes due to coastal flooding. Many coastal cities including low-lying areas were flooded during strong typhoon. So it is necessary to consider detailed evacuation planning, including hazard map, preparation of evacuation site, and sustainable city planning against storm surge inundation problems. For this study, we used 201 typhoon passing through Korea during the past 55 years since 1950. Typhoon wind model was used to estimate wind forcing and air pressure data for each typhoon. We estimated the spatial statistical analysis for inundation level as each return period. And finally we suggest the example of coastal hazard map in the Korean coast(Masan, yeosu and Busan city)

The Department of Public Works of the Government of the Unites States Virgin Islands has undertaken engineering design for widening of Veterans Drive along the waterfront of Charlotte Amalie on the island of St. Thomas. This proposed widening will include a revetment and bulkheads to protect the fill associated with the proposed widening. An alternative under consideration includes a low lying bridge along a historic section of the rock shoreline to protect it from the proposed fill. Hurricane surges, wave transformation, scour and wave loads were analyzed for various elements of the proposed infrastructure improvements. Design conditions at the site are characterized by moderate waves and storm surge due to its location at the head of a semi-enclosed embayment and a relatively narrow shelf south of St. Thomas terminating in a deep trench of the Caribbean Sea.

Though gifted with the Nile River, limitation in fresh water resources compared to expanding development activities add pressure to groundwater for fulfilling essential supply in Egypt. Therefore, attention is paid in groundwater management in facing development process pressures as well as initiated extra concerns of climate changes. Being hydraulically connected with the sea, groundwater in coastal aquifer has special water characteristics and flow conditions. This study presents a vulnerability assessment for a study area that acquires a strategic environmental and socio-economic importance, located in the North-Eastern sector of the Nile Delta, with special reference to the impact of Climate Change-related Sea Level Rise (SLR) on salt water intrusion into aquifer. The study tracks changes in sea water intrusion in terms of advancement of saltwater/freshwater interface inland. Analytical methods as well as numerical modeling approaches have been considered for modeling saltwater/freshwater interface behavior. Accordingly, interface dynamics and potential lateral and upward groundwater movements in the region of study in face of predicted SLR in years 2025, 2050, 2075 and 2100 have been investigated. Results showed that saltwater/freshwater interface advancement of 35 meters by year 2025, 180 meters in 2050, 509 meters in 2075, and 1065.8 m by year 2100 are predicted within the study area as a result of projected climate change and SLR; if no adaptation measures are implemented. While considering ground levels, soil characteristics and land-use patterns, vulnerability analysis for the study area highlighted particular sub-regions at risk within the study area as being more susceptible to difficulties and deserves priority in precautionary management actions. In view of the concluded results, a review of prospective adaptation measures to be considered for alleviating adverse impact of Climate Change-related SLR are discussed in order to safeguard socio-economic assets and environmental state. However, it is recommended to investigate potential effectiveness and viability of alternative measures with periodic monitoring.

A study was conducted to investigate hydrodynamic and sediment transport mechanisms induced by the interaction of seawalls or breakwaters and the incident wave field. Use has been made of field data of two case studies and the numerical predictions of Genesis. The main case study examines the seabottom morphology and cross shore profiles in front of Rosetta seawalls, constructed in 1990, on the Nile Delta coastline to decelerate coastal erosion of the headland after the operation of the Aswan high dam in 1965. The analysis of the field data indicated lowering of the cross shore beach profiles, an increase of scour depth and an increase of the longshore sediment transport rate in front of the seawalls followed by downdrift accretion. These results are inline with the analysis of the second case study conducted to investigate the bathymetric changes, 1998–2004, at the Véran seawall located at the Gulf of Lions at the French Mediterranean coast. The modifications of sediment transport rates are attributed to the generated short-crested wave pattern in front of the seawalls and the modifications of long shore current. Further, the present analysis indicates that a significant component of sediment scour, in front of the seawall, is manifested as an offshore sediment transport current. Thereafter this offshore current is deflected alongshore contributing to sediment accretion down drift the seawall. Implications of these results to the design steps for coastal zone management and optimization of breakwater design, to minimize sediment accretion at entrances of small craft- harbors, are discussed.

There is an impetus by the scientific community in general, and federal agencies like the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in particular, to include the effects of global warming and sea level rise (SLR) within the design life of all federally funded projects. However, no mandates or policies have been issued. In many coastal states, specific policies and mandates have been issued to agencies to include the effects of climate change, which has resulted in relevant coastal management agencies taking on the mantle of addressing sea level rise issues in terms of development permits for new projects, and some on existing projects. Since there is no generally-accepted, specific guidance on ranges of SLR or management strategies for the future, coastal developments are seeking guidance for an understanding of the issues and associated economic implications and other risks. An illustrative example of an adaptive management strategy for a typical coastal protection structure (seawall) is presented including a net present value analysis of various strategies. Finally, an implementation strategy that integrates Adaptive Management and a Monitoring Framework based on recent experience in San Francisco Bay is presented. Scientific projections, illustrative cases, and the evolving nature of SLR projections are discussed.

Subaqueous sediment gravity flows generated in open water pipeline dredge disposal operations were investigated through laboratory experiments and mathematical modeling. Three laboratory experiments that simulate typical open water pipeline dredge disposal operations in the coastal environment were conducted by discharging mud slurries with three different initial concentrations in a large pool. The discharged mud slurries descended as vertical buoyant jets through the water column. After impinging the bottom, they formed a short-lived momentum-driven axisymmetric horizontal flow that transformed into an axisymmetric gravity flow soon after. The analysis of the radial spreading of those fluid mud gravity flows showed that their flow dynamics were governed by a balance between the driving buoyancy force and the resisting inertia force. A simple mathematical model (compositional box model) that does not consider the presence of suspended sediment was used to predict the experimental observations. The predictions of the box model solution were observed to be notably in good agreement with experimental observations, despite the box model exhibiting several simplifying assumptions. It is concluded that the radial propagation of fluid mud gravity flows in the inertia-buoyancy propagation phase can be modeled by a compositional box model solution. This study is motivated by the need for deterministic predictive modeling capabilities for coastal dredging operations.

A new numerical model of regional sediment transport and barrier elongation, supplied by sediment coming from longshore sediment transport (LST), was developed. The spit growth and barrier elongation model was based on the model proposed by Kraus (1999). The LST rate used as input for the spit growth and barrier elongation model was simulated by the one-line model of shoreline change (Hanson, 1987) combined with the inlet reservoir model (Kraus, 2000; Larson et al., 2006). The model was applied to field data from the south coast of Long Island, United States. The simulation results were compared with measurements of the annual net LST rate and the barrier elongation. Overall, the model simulations were in good agreement with the measured data.

Generally, coastal areas where there are dominant tidal currents and topographic change are maintained in equilibrium by the reciprocating motion of tidal currents. However, artificial action on the current for operating a nuclear plant operation at the intake and the outlet breaks the equilibrium of the tides and this in the end results in disturbing the equilibrium condition of bottom topography. This research used the variation of siltation pace acquired from monitoring results to formulate coupled model in order to predict the change of water due to artificial construction in the intake in the future more precisely. As a result of analyzing the water depth change in the intake area according to the survey data of water depth, after dredging work, siltation of 100~140cm/year occurs in the middle of the intake area but siltation of 80~300cm/year is generated at the sides. Furthermore, we can acknowledge the fact that siltation is generated and then come to the equilibrium for short period after artificial dredging work is executed every 2 years. Therefore, we have to examine these phenomena in prediction of siltation using numerical model test. In general, the results of sediment transport is expressed by yearly transformation rate based on linear change, but siltation is generated for short time and then come to the equilibrium after artificial dredging work is executed every 2 years in this study area. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out the model tests in same condition with field condition of dredging period (2 years), and it is presented that the numerical modeling results are similar to the field survey data. In the siltation model test, because a dredging period of 2 years gave an important influence on topography transformation, we eliminated a reappearance error and simulated water depth transformation in intake area using time-dependant coupled model based on survey time in order to represent the topography transformation in the real coast.

Historical bathymetric data is being collated to map out the trends of morphological changes and ebb-delta growth at the Nerang River entrance which is also known as the Gold Coast Seaway after construction of entrance stabilisation works in 1985. The influences of various environmental and anthropogenic drivers which have impacted on the entrance morphology are investigated using available historical bathymetry, wave, dredging and bypassing data.

On the base of experimental data the comparison of the suspended sediment concentration fluctuations frequency spectrum with the wave energy spectrum, was fulfilled. It led to some interesting results. Studies were carried out for different wave conditions, during which γ parameter varied from 1 to 10. Its changes affected the wave energy spectrum. Article examines influence of the wave energy spectrum on frequency spectra of suspended sediment transport. The paper will provide detailed information about results of this investigation.

Madura Strait is located in East Java province, about 800 km east of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia. The Madura Strait is subject to ocean waves of less than 1 m height due to its position in semi-enclosed Java Sea in Indonesian archipelago. There are 2 major rivers that carry sediment to Madura strait namely Bengawan Solo River and Brantas River. In the last years sediment transport from Brantas river has been increasing significantly through one of its branch namely Porong River. The development of Suramadu Bridge between Surabaya (at Java Island) and Bangkalan (at Madura Island) contributed to sedimentation pattern in Madura Strait. The shallow bathymetries in major part of Madura Strait threat an environmental problem in the area. Therefore sedimentation model is necessary on attempt to anticipate serious environmental problem in Madura Strait. This study is about mud transport simulation in Madura Strait due to increasing sediment discharge from Porong River. The analysis was carried out by using MIKE-21 model software developed by DHI Water and Environment. In hydrodynamic simulation, water level boundary conditions were generated using global tide model from MIKE21 Toolbox at the boundary. The simulated water level and velocity were compared with observed data at calibration stations. In the calibration, the bed roughness parameter was adjusted by trial and error until the most satisfactory results were obtained. The root mean square error between computed and observed parameters in calibration was satisfied. In mud transport simulation, sediment concentration boundary conditions were generated using observation data. The simulated suspended sediment concentration was compared with observed data at calibration stations. Calibration parameters (critical shear stress for deposition, critical shear stress for erosion and erosion coefficient) were adjusted to get satisfaction results. After the calibrated mud transport model was achieved, simulation of several scenarios was applied to predict future behavior of sedimentation in Madura Strait.

The interaction between wind waves and sediment movement at shores is a complex process, and its understanding is important. An accurate wave forecasting can result in better estimates of sediment movement along beaches. In addition, it will provide opportunities for improved planning and taking appropriate safety measures against the extreme events. A number of numerical models for wind-wave prediction are available which use inherent physics for wind-wave evolution. These models perform better for deep water predictions but still lack full understanding of balance of sources terms in finite water depth. An enhanced understanding of these terms will result in better estimation of sediment transport on beaches. The present study provides increased insight into the variation of two important source terms; non-linear wave-wave interactions and bottom friction which have significant effect on sediment transport. The non-linear wave-wave interactions have positive and negative signature and is the least understood term in wind-wave evolution. The bottom friction is always negative and withdraws energy from the spectrum. Thus, this study has provided better understanding of these two terms, and shows that together these affect the development of peak of the spectrum and hence wave energy. Consequently, because of their importance it will affect sediment balance at the shore.

Results obtained from the validation of a cross-shore profile evolution model, Uniform Beach Sediment Transport-Time-Averaged Cross-Shore (UNIBEST-TC), were examined and further analyzed to reveal the reasons for the discrepancy between the model predictions of the field data at the surf zone of the Duck Beach in North Carolina, USA. The UNIBEST model was developed to predict the main cross shore parameters of wave height, direction, cross shore and long shore currents. However, the results of the model predictions are generally satisfactory for wave height and direction but not satisfactory for the remaining parameters. This research is focused on exploring the discrepancy between the model predictions and the field data of the Duck site, and conducting further analyses to recommend model refinements. The discrepancy is partially attributed due to the fact that the measured values, were taken close to the seabed, while the predicted values are the depth-averaged velocity. Further examination indicated that UNIBEST-TC model runs consider the RMS of the wave height spectrum with a constant gamma-value from the offshore wave spectrum at 8.0m depth. To confirm this argument, a Wavelet Analysis was applied to the time series of wave height and longshore current velocity parameters at the Duck site. The significant wave height ranged between 0.6m and 4.0m while the frequencies ranged between 0.08 to 0.2Hz at 8.0m water depth. Four cases corresponding to events of both high water level and low water level at Duck site were considered in this study. The results show that linear and non-linear interaction between wave height and longshore current occur over the range of frequencies embracing; the low frequency band of infragravity (0.001 – 0.02Hz) waves band and short incident wave band (0.05–0.10Hz). The current results highlight the necessity of incorporating interaction terms between wave - wave and wave- current in the development of cross shore and longshore model formulations.

The magnitude 9.0 earthquake that struck Japan on March 11^th, 2011 highlighted the enormous consequence when cooling mechanisms fail at a nuclear power plant. During this emergency a ‘Plan B' scenario was activated that brought sea water into the crippled Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant to cool the residual heat. This highlights the importance of having large quantities of water available and the ability to channel that water directly into the reactor. Another natural disaster, a series of large hurricanes, came through Florida during the 2004 and 2005 seasons creating extensive damage to canals designed to furnish seawater to a nuclear power plant located in Port St. Lucie, Florida. A typical reconstruction project to repair the channel lining might entail dewatering, but that was not an option since as a designated emergency backup mechanism this would shut down the plant. Therefore ‘In the Wet' reconstruction made sense and the owners issued a design build proposal mandating no plant shutdowns.

Future shoreline changes on a sandy beach with a structure such as a jetty or groin can be predicted when wave climate is known. An existing solution for the linearized partial differential equation for shoreline change is presented for the situation where wave climate is not changing and when the angle of the shoreline is small with respect to the waves breaking at the shoreline. The novel solution provided in this paper allows the previous constant wave condition solution to be utilized to be extended to the case where wave climate (i.e. wave direction and wave height) is time varying. Example usage of the method presented shows that shorelines are of different final planform shape for time varying wave conditions even though the sediment transport is the same from time step to time step. Reversals of wave climate time series are shown to provide very different final shoreline shapes even though time series consist of the same wave conditions although in different ordered time.

In the design of coastal protection structures like levees and seawalls, two important parameters are the design water level and wave height. The design water level determines the required crest height and strength of the structure. The design wave height is used to determine the type of armor necessary to protect the structure from wave attack. Determining the design water level and wave height requires a long time series of water level and wave height data. A rigorous analysis would use hydrodynamic and wave models to determine the hourly water levels and wave heights at the toe of the structure, over a period of many years. However, constraints in budget, time, or computational resources often make this type of analysis impractical. An alternative is to develop an event ranking method to identify the most intense annual storm events, then analyze only those storms in detail. This paper describes two such ranking methods, one of which was applied to Oakland International Airport and shown to work well when compared with results from rigorous hourly two-dimensional wave modeling.

This paper describes a proposed scale for surfability and is field tested with 24 months of visual observations at Imperial Beach, California, USA. At present there is no generally accepted method to classify "surfability", or surf quality, of surfable waves. In this paper surfability is defined by a ten point scale ranging from extremely poor to excellent. Each point on the scale includes a subjective quality rating and an objective percentage representing increasingly higher quality rideable surfing waves. Oceanographic characteristics (height, period, direction, tide, sea surface condition) were simultaneously recorded for cross-comparisons with the surfability rating. Joint distributions delineate which conditions are most conducive to high surfability. Human nature introduces some influences on the visual observations.

Landslides and severe erosion along our nation's coastlines can present a real challenge to engineers, planners and designers. Not only are the regulatory hurdles associated with construction in sensitive coastal zones significant, many of the common tools available either present a large environmental impact or are not robust enough to handle the corrosion, scour, rapid drawdown, wave action, and other erosion processes associated with coastal sites. In the context of case studies from three coastal projects across the United States, this paper outlines some of the new and innovative erosion control and landslide mitigation methods available to designers that are both robust enough to survive coastal conditions and specific enough to prevent unnecessary environmental impact. Relevant technologies include traditional soil nailing, high capacity tensioned wire mesh with vegetative inclusions and/or seeded turf reinforcement mats, reinforced architecturally sculpted shotcrete, scour micropiles, and fiberglass composite launched (or ballistic) soil nails/horizontal drains. The case studies within this paper include a Pacific coastal bluff erosion project using fiberglass ballistic soil nails and architecturally sculpted/stained shotcrete near Crescent City, California; a lakeshore erosion repair using high-strength galvanized steel mesh, launched steel soil nails and native plant impregnated cellular confinement coir on the West Shore of Lake Tahoe in California; and a Pacific coast bluff slide repair using a subsurface combination of horizontal self drilling soil nails and reticulated micro piles along California's scenic Hwy 1.

Wave refraction and diffraction effects resulting from bathymetric depressions (a dredged borrow pit and a dredged entrance channel to a port) were investigated for a major port expansion project. Due to the complex bathymetry and port configuration, a combination of physical and numerical modeling was developed. A third generation, phase-averaged, spectral wind-wave model was developed for this study using an unstructured mesh. The model was used to transform offshore wave conditions to provide the extreme nearshore wave design conditions of significant wave height, peak period, and mean wave direction (H_m0, T_p, MWD). A time-domain, Boussinesq-type wave model was also established to simulate the propagation of waves traveling from deep water to shallow water involving the primary wave motion as well as the bound and free long waves. This model is capable of reproducing the combined effects of most of the wave phenomena of interest to the harbor engineer, including shoaling, refraction, diffraction and partial reflection of irregular, finite amplitude waves propagating over complex bathymetry (i.e., borrow pits, dredged channel). The results of the study indicate that the surface interactions with the deep-draft and wide navigation channels significantly influence the incident waves and manifest themselves into both amplification and attenuation of the incident wave field. Both of these effects in-turn critically influence inputs to design, planning of port infrastructure, as well as assessment of harbor agitation and vessel downtime. While in recent years port designers have typically relied upon numerical wave models to perform most of the initial studies, in our study a combination of physical and numerical modeling was used. Based on the combined observations from the physical and numerical modeling results, conclusions and recommendations from this work show that both models compared well. Wave heights observed in the physical model were similar to or slightly higher than the numerical predictions.

Erosion protection for quay structures has big importance due to propeller jet damage. Because of economic reasons a great number of large ships can berth with their own power today. During berthing and unberthing, propeller jet may cause serious scour on sloping rip rap banks, around pile or quay walls. Thus, occurrence of ship propeller-induced damages has became very common problem nowadays. In this research, propeller wash on a slope was studied. The experiments were performed in a laboratory flume in Yıldız Technical University, Hydraulic and Coastal Engineering Laboratory. Two different slope angles which were m=2.5 and m=3 were considered. The propeller has 0.1 m diameter and 625 rpm, 690 rpm and 820 rpm in the experiments. The velocity distrubition and scour on the slope were obtained. The propeller jet velocity distrubution was obtained with Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) along the propeller axis. The damaged slope profile and the scour and accummulation behaviour at the toe along the spanwise direction were obtained.

Mexico is located in the subtropical region. Due to the concentration of strong tropical cyclones, numbers of hurricanes batters the territory all year round. Recent years, with the phenomenon of global warming, hurricanes increase year by year, not only in the quantity but also in the power, and indirectly cause the coastline to fall back, eventually the coastal erosion issue threatens the alongshore structures. PEMEX (Petróleos Mexicanos) is the major oil corporation in Mexico; built along the coastline, its installations are also invaded by hurricanes. In 1982, PEMEX built up a private port in the Gulf of Mexico south of Dos Bocas port, Tabasco State. The construction of this port blocked the drift sand. After many years of the wave and longshore current effect, the seashore at east side of the port where many oil pipelines were located, turned out in lack of sand source arising the erosion problem and lost its protection. Thus, Dos Bocas coastline was facing severe challenges, how to solve the problem of coastal erosion and oil pipeline protection became the top priority for PEMEX.

Propeller induced scour has been taken big attention in last three decades. Erosion caused by propeller jets around berting structures has been an important research subject in engineering area for years. In this study, the hub effect on a propeller scour around a pile was searched. The experiments were performed in a laboratory flume in Yıldız Technical University, Hydraulics and Coastal Engineering Laboratory. A 1/1.5 slope with coarse gravel and rip-rap layer with fine gravel were considered. Pile was constructed at the toe of the slope. Firstly experiments were performed for free propeller jet and then for hub jet. The propeller has 0.1 m diameter and the hub has 0.104 m diameter and 0.3 m length. The experiments were conducted for 560 rpm, 690 rpm and 820 rpm. The results of free and hub propeller jet were compared and it is found that hub causes decrease in scour.

Currently, 25 to 35 square miles of wetlands are lost each year along coastal Louisiana. The shoreline along the Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge in Cameron Parish is experiencing some of the highest rates of loss, with estimates of long-term shoreline retreat ranging from 30 to 40 ft/year (Byrnes et al. 1995). To combat the direct loss of wetlands at Rockefeller Refuge, the Louisiana Office of Coastal Protection and Restoration (OCPR) teamed with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) to implement the Rockefeller Refuge Gulf Shoreline Stabilization Project. The project intent is to halt erosion along the 9.2 mile portion of the Refuge west of Joseph Harbor Bayou. Due to the challenges presented by extremely soft soils, requirement to protect the marsh shoreline for up to hurricane conditions, and limited construction budget, a smaller demonstration project utilizing three alternative designs was proposed and constructed in Fall/Winter of 2009. The alternatives constructed include: gravel beach fill, light-weight aggregate core breakwater, and a low crested "reef" breakwater. Following construction, a monitoring plan was implemented to assess the ability of the three alternatives to combat erosion along the shoreline. The monitoring plan was designed to collect a comprehensive set of data to document the performance of the alternatives for one year following construction. A metocean data station was installed at the project site to collect wave, wind, and tide data for 6 months. Concurrent measurements of waves offshore and leeward of the breakwaters were conducted to assess wave transmission. In addition, the project area was surveyed approximately every four months to document the structure geometry, shoreline and nearshore profile changes, and structure settlement. The later was performed by surveying settlement plates that were installed during construction. In addition, a separate control area near the project location was surveyed to assess shoreline retreat with no shoreline protection. Aerial photography was obtained during each survey to visually document the conditions during the surveys.

The San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG) is embarking on a second Regional Beach Sand Project (RBSP II) since adoption of their Shoreline Preservation Strategy (SANDAG 1993). The Shoreline Preservation Strategy (SPS) called for beach nourishment to offset regional sand losses and beach narrowing. The first RBSP (RBSP I) was a success, in that it widened beaches for up to seven years in some areas as reported by monitoring (Coastal Frontiers Corporation 2010), while not adversely impacting the environment (AMEC 2005). This second RBSP (II) is intended to replicate and potentially improve on the benefits of RBSP I, while still not causing environmental impacts. Several alternatives were analyzed for shoreline position, change to recreational beach area, and impacts to lagoons. Two alternatives appear to perform successfully, and the region selected one for implementation. This paper presents results of analyses for the proposed alternative.

Problems are inevitable in the use of oyster shell bag breakwaters. Oyster shell bag breakwaters have been used in many locations throughout the USA to quantify their ecological benefits, but little research has been conducted regarding their wave attenuating properties. Quantitative information has been produced for traditional structures, but nothing has been published to describe the attenuating properties of an oyster shell bag breakwater. Currently, projects employing oyster shell bag breakwaters would need to adopt published methodologies for determining the transmissive properties of traditional materials or conduct individualized experimentation for their project to determine the adequate dimensions necessary to handle the hydrodynamic loads applied to them. Projects using this methodology could over design or under design the oyster shell bag breakwaters. The objective is to resolve this issue by conducting laboratory experiments in a controlled setting and comparing those results to existing methodologies available in the published literature. The results obtained in this report are a substantial finding in terms of constructing oyster shell bag breakwaters. The data obtained from testing is compared to published methodologies for measuring the wave transmission coefficient of low crested breakwaters (Van der Meer et al., 2005), which produces a distinguishable resemblance based on the 43 tests conducted during this study. However, additional testing should be conducted to enhance the initial findings by including practical application variables such as wave variability and structure placement in relation to the shoreline.

To provide adequate protection against storm wave attack, minimize terrace slope erosion, enhance public safety, and maintain lateral beach access, the 2,100-foot aged riprap revetment was repaired under the site's development plan at Strand Beach, California. Furthermore, to promote public use of the project beach area and enhance the aesthetic scenic view, an 8-foot wide pedestrian walkway with a 3-foot high retaining wall was built atop the revetment. The integrated walkway/retaining wall structure provides additional protection against storm wave impingement. A 3-year post-construction beach monitoring program was implemented to document any potential revetment construction impact on coastal processes at Strand Beach after the revetment repair. It was found that the coastal processes impact on Strand Beach as a result of the revetment repair is inconsequential.

A coastal engineering study was performed to compute extreme Total Water Levels (TWL's) for three different global warming scenarios to assist in the selection of realistic scenarios for analysis, and in the development of corresponding realistic coastal protection solutions for the Twin Lakes Beachfront Improvements Project in Santa Cruz, CA. The study involved, among others, the development of a 39-year long wave hindcast in shallow water, the development of TWL hindcasts, and calculation and mapping of 100-year TWL's along the coast where the improvement project is being planned by the County of Santa Cruz. The 100-year TWL contours for a 50-year project lifetime were used in the conceptual design of the architectural plans and coastal protection structures.

In the present work, the shoreline changes of a sandy beach in Karaburun, Turkey, are studied by using a numerical simulation model (LITPACK). The work is motivated by the considerable erosion and siltation problems caused a sediment deposition near and inside the harbor entrance which prevented the boat traffic and caused a vital problem for the harbor operations. The study's scope is two-fold: to help in understanding the dynamics of the beach based on results of the field work and to study the responses of this beach by numerical simulation, utilizing the topographic and sediment field data and measured wave data. The validation and verification of the numerical model was perfomed by RTK-GPS measurements. The results of the numerical simulation concerning the coastline evolution are found to be in agreement with the measurements.

Stone filled polymeric marine mattresses were utilized for the protection of solid core submarine conductor cables. The large diameter cables were found partially or fully exposed, and in a few locations were suspended above the seafloor, extending from the shoreline to approximately 305 meters offshore. The mixed sediment shoreline, where the cables make landfall, is highly dynamic and is exposed to storm energy. Multiple alternatives were evaluated for post lay protective burial of the cables. Stone filled polymeric marine mattresses were selected because of their low cost and quick implementation to reduce operational and safety concerns. The stone filled polymeric marine mattresses were designed to prevent uplift and slip during local storm events. A total of 146 stone filled polymeric marine mattresses, measuring 6 meters by 2 meters by 15 centimeters, were used to cover approximately 915 meters of cable. Installation of the mattresses took 11 days. In areas of suspension, stone backfill was utilized to support the cables and the marine mattresses were oriented with lengths perpendicular to the direction of a cable to provide additional scour protection. Post monitoring of the project includes annual surveys. Initial monitoring efforts have observed marine growth on the structures and localized areas of deposition and erosion surrounding the flexible marine mattresses. These changes are expected and ongoing project monitoring continues to demonstrate that the project is successful.

Shore protection projects are designed to improve the resiliency of the coastal area, particularly for areas that are vulnerable to extreme storm events. Having multiple surveys for the area allows for change detection of geomorphic features and the condition of the nourishment project to be identified. Methods to identify geomorphic features for change detection have been developed using three-dimensional spatial data to assist in the monitoring efforts of shore protection projects. The spatial variation for the beach system, including the dune peak elevations, beach width, and volume, are monitored for several surveys for change detection and to identify areas of vulnerability, since having dunes and a wide beach increases the resiliency of a coastal region.

Situated in the center of a 25-mile (40-km) arcuate shoreline between Little River Inlet and Murrells Inlet, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, is the heart of a booming tourist area. However, Myrtle Beach suffered beach degradation in the 1980s. As recently as 1985, much of Myrtle Beach was armored by seawalls and there was little or no high-tide beach. Myrtle Beach was also found to have lost sand between the 1950s and 1980s at rates of 0.5–2.5 cubic yards per foot per year (cy/ft/yr) (1–6 m3/m/yr). Despite the poor natural condition of the beach and constant loss of sand year after year, Myrtle Beach has become one of the best beaches in the United States due to the nourishment efforts by the City of Myrtle Beach (1986–1989) and the federal government (1997 and 2008). The federal nourishment project was constructed by hydraulic dredge in 1997 using an offshore deposit. Approximately 2.2 million cubic yards (1.7 million cubic meters — m3) were placed along the 9.23-mile-long (14.85 kilometers) shoreline of Myrtle Beach. The average fill density was ~45 cy/ft (113 m3/m). Annual surveys have been performed by the authors since 2001 using a network of 70 profile lines, most of which extend beyond 15-ft (4.6-m) depths (the estimated Depth of Closure) in this setting. In 2008, as planned by the federal government, an additional 1.5 million cubic yards (1.15 million cubic meters) were added to Myrtle Beach, further advancing the shoreline. The average fill density of the 2008 project was ~33 cy/ft (83 m3/m). Survey results show that the net gain between January 1997 and May 2010 represents 83 percent of the nourishment volume placed. Therefore, nourishment losses have been moderate, totaling ~17 percent of the federal fill. The average annual loss rate since 1997 has been ~1.15 cy/ft/yr (2.9 m3/m/yr), which is below the loss rate for the 1986–1989 project (measured within the visible beach to low-tide wading depth). The lower rate partly reflects an incrementally coarser sediment placed in 1997 (~0.3 mm versus ~0.25 mm mean grain size) and no major storms.

Erosion and sand loss from the Malibu coastline has been reported for several decades, but minimal effort has occurred to widen or restore the beaches. The primary focus has been to harden the coastline with seawalls and bulkheads, resulting in poor laterally-accessible beaches with limited recreation or protection value. A comparison of current conditions to those observed over a decade ago revealed that most sections of the coastline have eroded. A few beaches have remained relatively unchanged, and even fewer beaches have accreted. This paper proposes a long term and sustainable sediment nourishment method by utilizing the multiple, steeply-sloped, ephemeral creeks that discharge to the Malibu coastline. This method requires grading a portion of selected creeks near their ocean outlet to create a flat-bottomed channel to store sediment placed there. When flowing, the creek would then mobilize and discharge the sediment to the coast where natural processes of separation and distribution can occur.

Recently, December 2010, a severe storm hit Alexandria city, Egypt, and directly attacked its shoreline. Wind gusting to 65 kilometer per hour lasted for about two days creating a deep water wave of a height of 7.5 meter for the first time in the last 100 years. This paper documents the different types of shore protection structures and methods (sand nourishment, revetment, groins, sea walls, emerged and submerged breakwaters) used to protect Alexandria coastline at the area of study and their behavior during this storm. This study concluded that the submerged breakwater used to protect Miami to Montaza beach, east of Alexandria, showed good efficiency concerning wave transmission and shore protection at storm times. It is recommended to apply the submerged offshore rubble mound breakwater and / or submerged offshore artificial reefs, to induce wave breaking and energy dissipation and to limit the wave heights to protect Alexandria coastline.

Beach nourishment provides a near-natural approach to shoreline maintenance. Beach nourishment design and evaluation aids are described and demonstrated for predicting the performance of projects. These entail broad scale quantification of closure depth and wave conditions coupled with a relatively simple one-line numerical model. The applicability of these aids is demonstrated by comparison with two well-monitored projects in which the proportion of nourishment material remaining in the placement area obtained through monitoring is compared with the predicted proportion versus time. It is concluded that overall performance can be predicted within approximately ± 25%.

The design/build method of procurement is now a major source of project administration for the Owner and has been successfully employed through a broad spectrum of construction. Recent history indicates that building and bridge construction has been the primary beneficiary of the design/build procurement method but there has been a movement to deploy this contracting method to other project types including shore protection and other coastal works. As this project delivery method migrates into these specific areas, the design/build team will be faced with a set of challenges not typically experienced within the traditional design/build project. These challenges may include lengthy regulatory reviews that influence the design and construction schedule, adjusting project goals and requirements as existing physical features change during the design and construction process, modifying design solutions to address the unknown conditions inherent to construction along the shoreline, and adapting construction activity to address the local fauna and flora regulatory requirements. Conversely, the benefits that can be derived from the design/build project delivery method can be substantial relative to the overall project costs. These benefits can include better design solutions resulting from the collaboration between designer and contractor, reducing the owner's administrative time and expense by consolidating the contract into a single design/build entity, potential to reduce the project delivery time, and a coordinated effort between designer and contractor to quickly address field issues that arise during construction. Understanding the opportunities and challenges presented to the design/build team is essential to ensuring a successful result from the collaboration between owner, designer, and contractor. Owners, Designers, and Contractors who function within the shore protection and coastal works field should be particularly aware of these opportunities and challenges as the traditional project delivery methods are replaced by the design/build project delivery method.

This paper provides a Southern California perspective on the competing societal interests that coastal property owners, both public and private, must face when dealing with coastal erosion. From the owner's perspective, accelerated coastal erosion creates an urgent need to protect their property; while many others simply view this as a natural process that delivers sand to the beach and can most simply be solved by removing the threatened property. As we enter into the 21^st century, there is increasing pressure for the government to regulate and require mitigation for any impacts to the state's shoreline. Moreover, mitigation measures for this impact may result in costs approaching or exceeding the cost of the proposed shoreline stabilization. This paper discusses the challenges of permitting coastal engineering projects and possible measures/solutions for permitting coastal engineering projects in the 21^st century.

This paper describes the design and construction of a partially penetrating vertical wall breakwater in Skagway, Alaska. The breakwater was constructed using ½-inch thick steel galvanized pipe pile with flat sheet pile welded to either side to form a "combi-wall". A steel waler along the top transfers lateral wave impact loads to pile clusters with vertical and batter pipe piles. The wave barrier blocks waves, while allowing fish passage and water circulation through the gap between the bottom of wall and seafloor. The entire 330 feet long structure was transported on one barge, requiring careful load-out and planning. The wave barrier was designed by PND Engineers, Inc. and installed by Pacific Pile and Marine, LP. The project was completed with no injuries and received the 2010 Project of the Year Award from the Pile Driving Contractor's Association (PDCA).

Passing deep-draft vessels in confined navigation channels generate significant hydrodynamic forces on berthed vessels and affect mooring systems and shoreside structures. Accurate prediction of these forces is essential for design of waterways and navigation channels, improvement of navigation safety, and optimizing port operations. There are several methods for predicting passing vessel impacts (hydrodynamics, forces) that are well known in the industry. Many of these methods produce reasonable estimates for pressure fields, particularly in open water, and have been used successfully in the past for various port and waterway projects. The present paper is intended to provide improvements to these predictions for complex waterways, increase the reliability of engineering design, and in turn reduce risk for navigation in confined waterways and improve port operations. The Vessel Hydrodynamics Longwave Unsteady (VH-LU) modeling system original development was described in Fenical et al. (2006) and has been under continual development as part of a comprehensive hydrodynamic modeling system, incorporating ambient hydrodynamic processes present in realistic port settings. The modeling system has been previously validated (Fenical et al. 2007) using field water level and velocity measurements, laboratory water level measurements, and laboratory berthed vessel loading measurements for all 12 test results reported by Remery (1974). The present paper describes validations of the modeling system using recent laboratory vessel hydrodynamic data, as well as recent large-scale laboratory berthed vessel loading data with the presence of a quay wall reported by van Wijhe et al. (2008). The results of the comparison between the quay wall tests of van Wijhe et al. (2008) are believed to be the most accurate published to date. Finally, the present paper describes recent real-world application of the modeling system to wharf design projects.

The Port of San Francisco (POSF) is planning to improve maneuvering and berthing conditions at Pier 27 Cruise Ship Terminal in San Francisco, CA. Pier 27 has been an operational cruise terminal since May 2006, with 27 cruise ships visiting since that time. Pier 27 is located in an area of strong tidal currents, crossing the berth at an approximately 45-degree angle. Maneuvering and berthing at Pier 27 is more challenging than at other POSF berths, because it extends further seaward than any of the other piers and exposes the vessels to stronger currents during the berthing process. The tidal currents at the site, combined with the relatively narrow existing berth configuration, presently results in arrival/departure times being adjusted to avoid the stronger current conditions. Maneuvering and berthing analyses were performed with the objective of reducing the frequency of these arrival/departure time adjustments. The analysis included evaluation of coastal conditions, ship maneuvering simulations and evaluation of mitigation measures to improve maneuverability and berthing.

Finite element analyses were conducted to determine critical buckling loads for rectangular, hollow pipe, and I-shaped piles subject to corrosion losses in the splash zone. Elastic buckling analyses generated Euler buckling loads for models with partial section loss in the splash zone as well as section loss across the entire pile length. Cross-sections were subjected to 25%, 50%, and 75% material loss. Rectangular and hollow pipe piles retained more than 70% of their capacity even when 75% of the material was lost in the splash zone. The I-shaped pile, however, became unstable for material loss exceeding 25% because lost flange material significantly reduced the moment of inertia. Results for hollow pipe piles indicate that they are likely to experience inelastic yield prior to buckling. For all three cross- sections, critical buckling loads were higher when loss was limited to the splash zone versus the full pile length.

Field observations and numerical modeling of infragravity (IG) waves were conducted in support of the expansion of a major seaport. Measurements show that the overall energy level of IG waves is similar between stations deployed outside and inside the port, while spectra of IG waves show a clear peak of ~0.01 Hz at the inside-port stations and IG spectra at the outside-port stations are very broad-banded and somewhat white-noise-like, without a predominant peak frequency. Roughly linear dependence of long-wave amplitude on short-wave amplitude is observed from the field data. Long waves are also observed to be very directionally scattered, with seaward-propagating components dominant over contributions from the shoreward propagating components. In the numerical model, a non-standard approach, by employing a customized filter layer in the surf zone to mimic the short-wave breaking and run-up processes, is used to reduce the resolution requirement and thus the computational burden by an order of magnitude. Numerical model results are in good agreement with measured long-wave amplitude and compare favorably with the measured long-wave spectra. Furthermore, the directional properties of long waves from the numerical model are also confirmed by the analysis of measurement data.

Coastal engineering analysis and numerical modeling were performed for the San Francisco Marina West Yacht Harbor Renovation to develop engineering solutions for improving wave conditions in the marina and reducing sedimentation in the entrance channel. Analysis was performed using hydrographic survey data sets to quantify and locate sedimentation patterns in the entrance channel, and alternative mechanisms for reducing sedimentation were evaluated. The wave systems at the West Harbor are complex and formed of three main components: Pacific Ocean swell arriving through the Golden Gate, harbor seiche generated by the swell, and wind- waves from the north and northeast. To maximize wave protection in the harbor, breakwater designs were evaluated considering all three wave systems. Numerical modeling and analysis was also performed to evaluate changes in currents caused by the project, including entrance channel flow changes that impact navigation safety, and changes in marina water quality.

Oyster Point Marina in San Francisco Bay, California has recently been modified to allow ferry service within the marina basin. The modifications included reconfiguring the entrance channel which resulted in increased wave activity within the marina basin and subsequent damage to vessels and docks. A numerical model study of wave penetration into the marina basin and potential mitigating measures was conducted and concluded that floating breakwaters within the marina basin could be used effectively to reduce the wave energy to acceptable levels. One unique aspect of the floating breakwaters within the basin is that the wave reflection had to be minimized in order to maintain acceptable wave heights in the main marina fairway. Most applications of floating breakwaters to protect small craft harbors are not concerned with the reflected wave energy as it would normally propagate into open water and not typically interfere with navigation. A large scale physical model study was undertaken to evaluate various floating breakwaters. The model study included monitoring the reflected wave conditions as well as the transmitted waves. Modifications to standard floating breakwaters were tested to evaluate the energy dissipation which would result in reduced wave reflection and the transmitted waves. The results of the physical model study were used in a Boussinesq model of wave penetration into the marina basin simulating the measured wave transmission and reflection as porous boundaries at the multiple floating breakwater locations.

The Kaumalapau Harbor Breakwater Repair Project has been monitored since late 2006 as part of the US Army Corps of Engineers' (USACE) Monitoring of Completed Navigation Projects (MCNP) Program. Various aspects of the structure's post-construction performance have been investigated in order to gather information that will improve the knowledge available in planning the design, construction, and overall effectiveness of future coastal navigation structures. Goals of the monitoring program for this project include monitoring armor layer and cap settlement in the years following completion, evaluating the structure toe stability, gathering strength data for the Core-Loc armor unit used on the breakwater, and determining the effectiveness of the breakwater in reducing wave energy inside the harbor. Data collected in support of the above goals included: deepwater and shallow water wave measurements, underwater and above water visual inspection, underwater multi-beam survey, above water Tripod-LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) surveys, and concrete strength measurements. In addition, wave transformation modeling has been completed in order to evaluate the wave climate at the harbor, and all data have been included into the USACE Enterprise Coastal Inventory GIS Database. A summary of the data and findings are presented, with a discussion of lessons learned as well as areas where further research is needed.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers District, Jacksonville (SAJ) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer and Development Center (ERDC) performed three model studies of St. Johns River, Jacksonville FL during the period of 2005 – 2010. The model studies included two- and three-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling of currents and a real-time ship simulator study. The first two model studies focused upon the Mile Point area where the St. Johns Bar Pilots Association restricts the movement of larger vessels during ebb tide due to strong crosscurrents. The crosscurrents occur from Pablo Creek on the south and Sisters Creek on the north. The third model study was to evaluate SAJ's GRR-2 plan to deepen and widen the entire deep-draft Federal project. The final result was a channel design allowing larger ships access to JAXPORT docks and reduce or eliminate tidal delays.

In this study, we identified the cause of the wave height amplification in the channel entrance and modified the configuration of the breakwater to improve the docking system in Daepo Harbor. We investigated the cause of the wave height amplification in the vicinity of channel entrance and obstruction elements in the channel entrance through a bathymetric survey of precision using a multi beam echo sounding (MBES), side scan sonar (SSS), sub marine photography and wave observation together with numerical simulation. In the field observation, wave heights were amplified due to the submerged shoal area and it was measured by pressure-type wave gauges. Moreover, the numerical simulation also indicates the wave height amplification on the submerged shoal. In addition, the verified numerical model was used to suggest a countermeasure to minimize the wave height amplification by rearranging the breakwater configuration. Currently, we are monitoring wave height amplification continuously. Moreover, hydraulic model tests for various cases are being carried out to elucidate the characteristics of the wave height amplification around the submerged shoal area and to develop a new support system for ship movement in the harbor. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the safety of ship movement in the vicinity of submerged shoal.

Traditionally, breakwater surveying is especially challenging and often dangerous due to weather conditions and the need to deploy personnel physically on the breakwater and generally lacking in terms of detail, especially spanning the water line. Utilization of mobile laser scanning and integrating with multibeam echosounder bathymetry allow the opportunity to produce models of the breakwater both above and below the water surface with very low health and safety exposure to personnel. These models are more accurate, more complete and more reliable than performing visual inspections, GPS surveys or using bathymetric methods alone. The comprehensive nature of the data products allows for vast improvements in the characterization of the breakwater condition and allow for better engineering decisions and design. Fugro and the US Army Corps of Engineers carried out surveys of four breakwaters in Southern California in 2009 and 2010 providing a detailed model for identifying damage, erosion and investigating required remediation.

A methodology for selecting the most suitable seaport site from two or more prospective sites is presented. Hydraulic analyses of the wave climate under prevailing and typhoon conditions are based on simulations using a nearshore wave model. The inland incursion of tsunamis is computed based on prognostic equations of long waves. The selection method is based on the overall rating using a site suitability matrix. The hydraulic analyses are also used in preliminary engineering design of the port dock and in determining the wave conditions for the engineering design of the port structure.

The load environment from side-berthing ferry landings is not well understood. This is due, primarily, to a lack of information for loads from ferry-class vessels. As a result, a great deal of uncertainty exists when designing such structures for vessel impacts. The intent of this study is to fill, at least in part, existing knowledge gaps related to load demands on ferry landing structures from vessel impact. This manuscript will focus specifically on a means for acquiring strain, displacement and approach velocity measurements at active ferry landings. This is accomplished using traditional instruments for measuring strain and deformation; coupled with modern data acquisition equipment. The result is a system that monitors structural response metrics that are useful to engineers tasked with analyzing and designing ferry landing structures. The automated system is a practical approach to studying multiple berthing events and allows collection of a statistically-significant sample - providing a pathway to reliability-based design criteria. Preliminary results of approach velocity and elastic potential energy of the structure due to berthing action will also be presented to demonstrate the utility of the automated data acquisition system.

The Port of Long Beach (Port) has systematically moved forward in developing tools, mechanisms, and decision-making frameworks to further Port sustainability by developing the Port of Long Beach Sustainable Design and Construction Guidelines (Sustainability Guidelines). Developed out of the Port of Long Beach Green Port Policy (Green Port Policy) mandates, the Sustainability Guidelines promote projects that are designed, constructed, and operated utilizing the triple bottom line approach to sustainability: community integrity, environmental stewardship, and economic vitality. The Sustainability Guidelines also emphasize sustainable marine, site, infrastructure, and building-related construction projects, operational procedures, and management processes with the aim of "going beyond" traditional project design. The Port is evaluating the Sustainability Guidelines for their ability to improve the Engineering Bureau's project management processes while contributing to the goals of the Green Port Policy and Port Engineering as a whole. Concurrent to this examination, the implementation of the Sustainability Guidelines brings to light additional benefits to the Port and surrounding community. The Port is testing the Sustainability Guidelines on pilot projects to measure their effectiveness and the level of effort required to implement them.

A field experiment was conducted in October-December 2011 to measure wave activity at Jensen Beach, Florida, at a projected mooring field. The goal of the experiment was to observe the wind-wave climate, and also understand the contribution of boat traffic to wave agitation. Time-frequency analysis (wavelet transform, and instantaneous frequency, e.g., Mallat, 1998) was used to identify boat wakes in the wind-wave background. The method allows for detecting boat wakes and studying their statistics, even in the presence of a relatively strong broad-banded wind-wave background (in this case the wind-wave spectrum is approximately 0.2-Hz wide, with the peak at 0.5 Hz).

There is huge pressure on the world's coasts due to development demands from coastal societies. The coastal area is special, because it defines the transition from land to sea. The coastal area thus offers access to the sea but on the other hand the sea also constitutes a severe restriction on the coastal area. Furthermore, the coastal area is a morphological active zone under the influence of the following "forces", processes and climate changes: (1) Natural "forces" such as tides, surges and waves, and extreme events such as tropical cyclones (typhoons/hurricanes) and tsunamis (2) Natural processes, such as sediment transport, coastal erosion, sand accumulation, sedimentation and location for river mouths and tidal inlets (3) Climate change manifesting itself in the form of Sea Level Rise (SLR) and changed wind patterns The increasing pressure on the shorelines and the coastal landscape from the above mentioned factors in combination with the anthropogenic activities (ports, coastal protection/sea defence, reclamations, coastal and offshore waterfront developments, cooling water intakes and outlets, infrastructure projects, wind farms, etc.) highlight the need for sustainable development in order to meet future demands in this region, while also taking into consideration the impacts associated with climate change. The concept of "Working with Nature" is important when the goal is to obtain an overall sustainable development.

The oceans' systems offer significant potential for electrical power generation for hydrokinetic, ocean current and ocean thermal energy. Currently, the technologic readiness is premature for implementation on a grid scale. There has been limited testing of tidal and wave devices in the US on the east and west coasts. However no full-scale field tests for ocean current have been conducted. There is ample opportunity for crosscutting, multidisciplinary research and development to bring ocean energy to the grid. The North Carolina Legislature has taken the initiative to create the opportunity for exploring renewable ocean energy for the mid-Atlantic region and specifically for the State by funding a significant research program primarily directed at the technology.

The concept of "living shorelines" involves the use of native vegetation and low-lying structures to provide shoreline stabilization, while attempting to mimic the natural landscape. Living shorelines are frequently a desirable alternative to hard engineering structures, such as bulkheads and rock revetments, which have the potential to dramatically change shoreline conditions and can lead to a complete loss of intertidal area, as well as associated habitat, recreational, and aesthetic benefits. The Coastal Zone Management (CZM) technical committee of the Coasts, Oceans, Ports and Rivers Institute (COPRI) has a vested interest in the research of sustainable alternatives for shoreline protection and coastal management. As the concept of living shorelines comes to the forefront in the search for alternative coastal management strategies in our ever-evolving coastal areas, the CZM committee has set out to further develop the fundamentals of living shoreline design based on a comprehensive review of living shoreline case studies.

Integration of forecasts to the strategic planning is necessary for sustainable and use of the coastal resources. In this study two different quantitative forecasting techniques - Exponential smoothing and Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) methods - were used to estimate the demand for yacht berthing capacity demand till 2030 in Turkey. Forecast results suggested that yacht tourism will continue to intensify increasing the demand on infrastructure. Aiming a dynamic plan which is responsive to both national and international developments in yacht tourism, potential investments were determined by using multi-criteria decision making processes. This study provides a multi dimensioned point of view to planning problem. The paper highlights the need for sustainable and dynamic planning at delicate and high demand areas such as coasts.

A need for upscaling of sand nourishments to guarantee sustainable conditions for safety against flooding and preservation of coastal functions, combined with the need to enhance an integrated coastal zone management in the Netherlands, has initiated a number of pilot experiments. The management background and the approach leading to the pilots are illustrated. Central to the approach is a connection between large scale requirements and small scale needs, applying a concept of Building-with-Nature. The three pilots illustrate different applications; two for mega-scale nourishments and one for sand mining. Monitoring of the pilots must reveal the effectiveness of the designs; evaluation of the approach to connect large- and small scales, must indicate its wider applicability.

In response to the growing need to protect the fragile and beautiful environment of the Coastal regions there has been increased desire to provide sewer collection systems to areas previously not sewered using less environmentally intrusive construction methods. Gravity sewer systems are the standard for wastewater collection worldwide. Although gravity sewers have been and remain the first choice among design engineers, the topography and constraints encountered in many Coastal locations precludes their use. Some of those constraints include rock at shallow depths, high groundwater table, a saltwater environment, unstable soil and mostly flat topography. The intent of this paper is to show how the use of Vacuum Sewers may help the design engineer overcome these constraints with shallow, narrow trenches and the elimination of infiltration and exfiltration. This technology has proved to be sustainable from both financial and environmental perspectives.

This paper discusses innovative environmental compensation used in port development. Sustainable development can be complicated by costly regulatory requirements. These requirements stem from the National Environmental Policy (NEPA) and Clean Water Acts (CWA). Federal and state NEPA and CWA versions require identification and evaluation of adverse impacts and methods to avoid, minimize or mitigate them. While some projects find political support helpful in addressing environmental and social conflicts more frequently, designs are used that are environmentally compatible but may limit development. Environmental issues are routinely related to physical attributes that control a site's ecological importance and sensitivity. Taking advantage of local physical attributes to re-nature sites and avoiding maintenance often provides missing but significantly important ecological functions and values with wide ranging benefits. Using natural conditions in designs that create maintenance free habitats that otherwise do not exist, can generate significant benefits. Good projects are environmentally compatible, great ones are beneficial.