Back Matter for Digital Twins in Construction and the Built Environment

3D laser scanning

219–220

Actuation layer, BIM-based healthcare FM DT

147

AHU Performance Assessment Rules (APARs)

177

AI

. See artificial intelligence

Air-handling unit (AHU)

176, 178

ANN

. See artificial neural networks

Anomaly score

181, 183

APIs

. See Application Programming Interfaces

Application Cases of Digital Twin (ISO/IEC JTC1 AWI 5719)

197

Application layer, BIM-based healthcare FM DT

147

Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)

94, 179, 181, 207, 209, 244

ArchiCAD

229

Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation (AECO) industry

1, 4, 13, 91, 219–220

BIM in (See Building Information Modeling (BIM))

CPS in

143

interoperability in

38–41

Artificial intelligence (AI)

2, 10–11, 16, 29, 55, 94, 125, 162, 165, 174, 190, 196, 253–254, 257–259, 262–263, 265–266

Artificial neural networks (ANN)

176–177

“As-built” models

146

“As-is” BIM models

219–220

ATHENA Integrated project

39

Atlas Ti, qualitative data analysis tool

2

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)

196

Autonomous shipping

191

BAS

. See Building Automation Systems

BIM

. See Building Information Modeling

BMS

. See Bridge Maintenance System

Body postures

77–78

Boundary representation

113–114

BRICK schema

150

Bridge Maintenance System (BMS)

257

Bridges

251

Bridges DT

252–266

AI in

253

challenges and considerations

258–263

connection and remote sensing

259

cost-effectiveness

262–263

cybersecurity

261

data collection

260

data interoperability

260

data privacy

261

gaps in AI for optimized maintenance

263

governance

261–262

HPC

260–261

modernizing current technology

262

practicality of integrating all physical object data

258

regulation

261–262

sensor compatibility and integration

259

to current technologies

252–253

Cyber–Physical System vs. standalone 3D model

253

framework

253

integration methods

254–256

in maintenance

257

and maturity

252–256

practical applications

256–258

relationship of physical and virtual worlds in

253–254

Building Automation Systems (BAS)

100, 179

Building Information Modeling (BIM)

2, 37–38, 91, 219–220, 252

in AEC industry

38–39

“as-is” models

219–220

building information modeling uses vs. digital twin enterprise solution

14–16

connection

13

data requirements

13–14

as digital tool

13

vs. digital twin

2, 12–18, 37–38, 160

direct information exchange in

40

interoperability

38–41

interpreted information exchange in

40

invariant signatures of AEC objects to support interoperability with DT

41, 45–55

components of AEC project

53–54

future research directions

54–55

life cycle of AEC project

51–53

limitations

54–55

proven successes

46–51

as model/product

13

as process

13

scales of technology deployment

17–18

in transportation industry

254

BuildingSMART

100

Building Topology Ontology (BOT)

100

CAD

. See computer-aided design

CDE

. See common data environment

Center for Digital Built Britain

144

CityGML

100

Civil infrastructure sector, digital twin (DT) for

190

Classification methods, FDD

141

Cloud computing

190

Clustering

108–109

algorithms

108–109

data-driven

108–109

model-based

109

CMMS database

146

Common data environment (CDE)

10

Common reference system

105–106

Communication layer, BIM-based healthcare FM DT

147

Comprehensive DT

92

Computer-aided design (CAD)

38, 106, 223

Computer vision

78

Concepts and Terms of Digital Twin (ISO/IEC JTC1 AWI5618)

197

Condition monitoring, sensors for

138–139

Cone-frustum shape

42–43

Construction digital twin

7

Construction Operations Building information exchange (COBie) specification

146

Construction robots

63

Construction safety

256

Constructive research

221–222

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

115

CPS

. See cyber-physical systemcyber-physical systems

Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient

73

CSG

. See Constructive Solid Geometry

Cyber-physical systems (CPS)

5, 142–143

Data acquisition, geometric– semantic DTs

102–108

common reference system

105–106

data transformation and preprocessing

105–108

downsampling

107

filtering

107

photogrammetry

106

point cloud registration

106

sensors and platforms

103–105

SLAM

107

Data analytics

10, 190

Database

142

Data-driven clustering

108–109

Data-driven decision making

10

Data-driven model

179

Data enrichment, geometric– semantic DTs

108–110

data-driven clustering

108–109

model-based clustering

109

semantic enrichment on design data

110

semantic enrichment on spatial and visual data

109–110

Data governance/management

10

Data granularity

98

Data integration

97–98

Data noise

260

Data visualization

10

Decision making

10

Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN)

108–109

Depth cameras

. See RGB-D cameras

Device layer, BIM-based healthcare FM DT

147

DIE

. See direct information exchange

Digital innovations (DIs)

131–132

Digital thread

6

Digital transformation in maintenance management

133–135

Digital Twin Consortium (DTC)

4, 144, 252

Digital twin (DT)

1–31, 37–38, 92–93

of 2-ton crane

54

academic publications about

1–2

adoption

2–3, 18–22

AI/ML in

10

applications

1, 65–74, 159–169

aspects and their weights

2–3

in autonomous systems

143

benefits and opportunities

18–22

vs. BIM

2, 12–18, 37–38, 160

building information modeling uses vs. digital twin enterprise solution

14–16

data requirements

13–14

scales of technology deployment

17–18

in BMS

257

for bridges

252–266

for bridges and structures

251–266

for building energy and carbon performance

165–169

building managers leverage

1

in built environments

1–2

categorization of survey respondents

4

challenges and barriers

22–25

characteristics of

8–9

in civil infrastructure sector

190

common data environment in

10

components of

8–11

comprehensive

92

conceptualization

1, 5–12

construction

7

CPS and

142–143

data analytics in

10

data-driven decision making in

10

data governance/management in

10

data granularity

98

data integration

97–98

data requirements for

161

data visualization in

10

definitions of

5–6, 143–144, 252

development in China

196

for energy-saving office building

165–168

energy savings

161

ergonomic risk assessment framework

77–87

discussion

86

non-optical near-real-time method

81–82

non-optical task-based method

83–86

optical near-real-time method

80–81

overview

77–79

REBA tool

82–83

evaluation framework

30

geometric–semantic

101–117

global market

1

Grieves' definition of

143

and HBIM

220–221, 223–247

for human–robot interactions and

64–74

implementation

2–3, 21, 25–30, 93–101, 117–125

efficient HVAC systems (case example)

117–124

exemplary

117–124

framework

162–165

marginal cost for extension

124–125

use cases

124

implementation design

93–101

dependencies in

92–93

framework

94–95

further aspects

100–101

Internet of Things (IoT)

93, 97

purpose

93–94

requirements

96–98

information sharing in

10

integrity

98–100

interfaces

94–95

IoT developments

161

maturity models

30

model-based simulation in

10

network

7

paradigm

91

in PdM domain

175–187

performance of

174–175

for predictive maintenance

143–144

designing and implementing

144–145

future outlook

152

system architecture

145–151

testing design and implementation

151–152

purpose

93–94

related technologies

2

requirements

96–98

data granularity

98

data integration

97–98

integrity

98–100

update intervals

96–97

usage

97

research methodology

2–4

respondents' organizations, general information about

5

smart city

7

for smart port (case study)

189–216

solution

8–11

stakeholders

25–28

strategies

25–28

supply chain

7

surveys

3–4

system architecture

11–12

technologies

160–161

technology and energy savings

162

technology stack

28–29

types of

7–8

update intervals

96–97

usage

97

VR in development

65–66

for workspace booking

97–98

Direct information exchange (DIE)

40

DIs

. See digital innovations

DNN-based model

72

Downsampling

107

DT

. See digital twin

DTC

. See Digital Twin Consortium

DTFlex tool

151

DT LoX

98

DT system architecture

11–12

conceptual model of

12

ICT infrastructure

11

information and operation technologies (IT/OT)

11–12

Electrodermal activity (EDA) signals

67–68

Energy-saving office building, DT for (case study)

165–168

description

165

discussion

167–168

energy savings and carbon emission reductions under four scenarios

166–167

apache HVAC model

167

conventional building

166

daylight harvesting model

166

smart building

167

smart vs. conventional building

167

Internet of Things in building, implementation of

165–166

Energy savings

161

apache HVAC model

167

conventional building

166

daylight harvesting model

166

DT technology and

162

smart building

167

smart vs. conventional building

167

Enterprise asset management

134

Ergonomic risk assessment framework, DT-based

77–87

discussion

86

non-optical near-real-time ergonomic risk assessment method

81–82

non-optical task-based ergonomic risk assessment method

83–86

optical near-real-time ergonomic risk assessment method

80–81

overview

77–79

REBA tool

82–83

Facilities management (FM)

131

DIs in

131–132

functions

132–133

Facility Automation Services (FAS)

179

Facility management (FM)

163

FAS

. See Facility Automation Services

Fault detection and diagnosis (FDD)

139, 141–142

classification methods

141

reasoning/inference methods

141–142

Faults

136

FDD

. See fault detection and diagnosis

Filtering

107

FM

. See facilities managementfacility management

Gartner

1

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

252

Geometric– semantic DTs

92–93, 101–117

data acquisition

102–108

common reference system

105–106

data transformation and preprocessing

105–108

downsampling

107

filtering

107

photogrammetry

106

point cloud registration

106

sensors and platforms

103–105

SLAM

107

data enrichment

108–110

data-driven clustering

108–109

model-based clustering

109

semantic enrichment on design data

110

semantic enrichment on spatial and visual data

109–110

geometry provision

111–117

boundary representation

113–114

implicit representation

113

parametric and feature-based modeling

116–117

procedural modeling

114–116

Geometric signatures for AEC object

42–44

cone-frustum shape

42–43

for rectangular parallelepiped walls

43–44

Geometry provision, geometric– semantic DTs

111–117

boundary representation

113–114

implicit representation

113

parametric and feature-based modeling

116–117

procedural modeling

114–116

GIS

. See Geographic Information Systems

Google Cloud Platform (GCP)

244

Graphical user interface (GUI)

69

Grieves, Michael

143, 176

GUI

. See graphical user interface

HBIM

. See Historic Building Information Modeling

Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems

173

AHU of

179

DT implementation (case example)

117–124

advanced scenarios

123–124

basic scenarios

122–123

data granularity requirements

122

data integration requirements

121–122

and evaluation

122–124

update requirements

121

usage requirements

121

failure prevention of

173

invariant signatures

49–50, 52

objects

49–50

operation

182–183

PdM of (See predictive maintenance (PdM) for buildings)

PM vs. PdM

173–174

for system-based modeling

177

Henry Hudson I89 Bridge, New York

257

Heritage Building Data Inventory

221, 225–227

Higher-level segments/clusters

108

High-Performance Computing (HPC)

260–261

Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM)

220–247

discussion

245–246

and DTs

220–221, 223–247

Heritage Building Data Inventory

221, 225–227

overview

220–221

Scan-to-(H)BIM process

227–245

accuracy of parametric modeling

234–237

building defect assessment

237–242

geometric data acquisition and processing

230–234

monitoring

242–245

workflow proposal

229–230

HPC

. See High-Performance Computing

Human–robot collaboration (HRC) system

64–74

digital twin development

68–70

robot teleoperation in unity

69–70

VR–based human–robot teaming interface

69

near-real-time cognitive load assessment

68

overview

64–67

results/discussion

72–73

signal processing and classifier training

67–68

system performance assessment

70–71

ICT infrastructure

11

IDMs

. See information delivery manuals

IFC

. See industry foundation classesIndustry Foundation Classes

IFD

. See International Framework for Dictionaries

IIE

. See interpreted information exchange

Image sensors

104

Implicit representation

113

IMUs

. See inertial measurement units

Industry foundation classes (IFC)

100, 260

schema

39, 41

Inertial measurement units (IMUs)

78–79

Information and operation technologies (IT/OT)

11–12

Information delivery manuals (IDMs)

40

Information sharing

10

Infrastructure Report Card (ASCE)

251

Integrity

98–100

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

252–253

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

197

International Framework for Dictionaries (IFD)

41

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

197

Internet of Things (IoT)

2, 93, 97, 161, 179

and API

179

in building, implementation of

165–166

in ports

190

Interoperability

38–41

in AECO industry

38–41

of BIM platforms

40–41

INTEROP Network of Excellence

39

Interpreted information exchange (IIE)

40

Invariant signatures of AEC objects

41

development

geometric signatures

42–44

locational signatures

44–45

material signatures

45

example

49

history

41–42

for HVAC objects

49–50

inferable concepts and corresponding heuristics

49

for space objects

51

to support BIM interoperability with DT

45–55

components of AEC project

53–54

future research directions

54–55

life cycle of AEC project

51–53

limitations

54–55

proven successes

46–51

IoT

. See Internet of Things

ISO 19650

197

ISO 19650-1:2018

254

Iterative closest point (ICP) algorithm

106

ITS

. See Intelligent Transportation Systems

K-means

109

Laser scanners

103

Level of Accuracy (LoA)

98

Level of Development (LoD)

98

Level of Geometry (LoG)

98

Level of Semantics (LoS)

98

LiDAR

. See Light Detection and Ranging

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)

103–106

laser scanning

219–220

SLAM

107

LoA

. See Level of Accuracy

Locational signatures for AEC object

44–45

LoD

. See Level of Development

LoG

. See Level of Geometry

Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)

175, 178, 180–181

LoS

. See Level of Semantics

LSTM

. See Long Short-Term Memory

LSTM encode–decode model

181–184

LSTM network

68

M5StickC device

244

Machine learning (ML)

2, 10, 109

MAE

. See mean absolute error

Marker-based optical methods

78

Marker-less optical methods

78

Material signatures for AEC object

45

Mawan Port

190, 196

MBSE

. See model-based systems engineering

Mean absolute error (MAE)

181–182

Mechanical vibration

137

ML

. See machine learning

Mobile laser scanning (MLS) systems

104

Model-based clustering

109

Model-based simulation

10

Model-based systems engineering (MBSE)

6

Model view definitions (MVDs)

40

MongoDB Atlas

244

MQTT Server

244

MRCI

. See Museu Republicano “Convenção de Itu”

Multi-view stereo (MVS)

106

Musculoskeletal disorders

77

Museu Paulista

221

Museu Republicano “Convenção de Itu” (MRCI, case study)

221

accuracy of parametric modeling

234–237

building defect assessment

237–242

data inventory procedures

225–227

discussion

245–246

geometric data acquisition and processing

230–234

monitoring

242–245

MVDs

. See model view definitions

MVS

. See multi-view stereo

NASA-TLX

71

National BIM Standard

39

National Science Foundation (NSF)

142–143

Network DT

7

Neural network for measuring cognitive load

66–67

Ningbo Port

190, 196

Noise

260

Non-optical near-real-time ergonomic risk assessment method

81–82

Nonoptical posture estimation method

78

Non-optical task-based ergonomic risk assessment method

83–86

NSF

. See National Science Foundation

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

83

OGC SensorThingsAPI

100

One-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D CNN)

67

OpenBIM standards

100

OpenGIS standards

100

Operational twin

144

Optical near-real-time ergonomic risk assessment methods

78, 80–81

OSHA

. See Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OWAS tool

77

Parametric and feature-based modeling

116–117

Parametric model

116–117

PHM

. See prognostics and health management

Photogrammetric surveys

219–220

Photogrammetry

106

Photoplethysmography (PPG) signals

67–68

Physical layer, BIM-based healthcare FM DT

147

PLM

. See product life cycle management

Point clouds

103, 111

architectural objects

219–220

in built environment, semantic segmentation of

110

registration

106

Points of interest (POIs)

93

POIs

. See points of interest

Polygon/Mesh Representation (PR/MR)

113–114

Portbase

191

Port of Barcelona (Spain)

196

Port of Hamburg

196

Port of Livorno (Italy)

196

Port of Oulu (Finland)

196

Port of Rotterdam

191

Port of Singapore

196

Port of Valencia (Spain)

196

Predictive maintenance (PdM) for buildings

135–142, 173–174

common applications

136

data-driven approaches for

175–176

digital twin for

143–144, 173–187

data collection

179–180

defining

143–144

designing and implementing

144–145

failure prediction and system monitoring

181–182

future outlook

152

knowledge gap

177–178

lack of standardization in

177

model development

180–181

potential of

176–177

proposed framework

178–179

research and development of

175

research objective

177–178

results and discussion

182–185

system architecture

145–151

testing design and implementation

151–152

fault detection and diagnosis (FDD)

139, 141–142

classification methods

141

reasoning/inference methods

141–142

ideal time frame for executing

136

implementation

139–140

innovation

185–186

layers

176

in maintenance

136–137

process parameters

137

thermography

137

vibration monitoring and analysis

137

performance of

183–186

program

136

sensors for condition monitoring

138–139

Prescriptive maintenance

258

Preventive maintenance (PM) approach

173–174

Procedural modeling

114–116

Product life cycle management (PLM)

143

Prognostics and health management (PHM)

145

Qingdao Port

190, 196

QTO

. See quantity takeoff

Quantity takeoff (QTO)

46

Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC)

109

RealEstateCore (REC) ontology

150

Reasoning/inference methods

141–142

REBA tool

77–79, 82–83

Recurrent neural networks (RNNs)

176, 180

Reference architecture

145

Remaining maintenance life (RML)

135

Remaining useful life (RUL)

174

Revit

229

RGB-D cameras

104

Rhino3D

229

RML

. See remaining maintenance life

RNNs

. See recurrent neural networks

Robot Operating System (ROS)

70

Robot teleoperation

69–70

ROS

. See Robot Operating System

RUL

. See remaining useful life

RULA tool

77

Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT)

42

Scan-to-(H)BIM process

227–245

accuracy of parametric modeling

234–237

building defect assessment

237–242

geometric data acquisition and processing

230–234

monitoring

242–245

workflow proposal

229–230

Semantic enrichment

on design data

110

on spatial and visual data

109–110

Semantic segmentation, algorithms for

110

Semantic Sensor Network Ontology (SSNO)

100

Sensing layer, BIM-based healthcare FM DT

147

SensorML

100

Sensors for condition monitoring

138–139

SfM

. See structure from motion

Shanghai Port

196

SHM

. See Structural Health Monitoring

SIFT

. See scale-invariant feature transform

Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)

105, 107

SLAM

. See simultaneous localization and mapping

SMART

39–40

Smart city DT

7

Smart port, digital twin (DT) for (case study)

191–216

in China

190, 196–215

design and develop, challenges to

196–197

data availability

197

data integration

197

data requirements

197

lack of business analysis

196–197

long-term data management in data environment

197

development of

190–196

infrastructure

190–191

operational efficiency

189

overview

189–190

Weihai Port, 197–215 (See also Weihai Port, DT for)

Space signatures

51– 52

SSNO

. See Semantic Sensor Network Ontology

Stacked-autoencoder (SAE) algorithm

176

Stochastic Gradient Descent optimizer

72

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

252–253, 257

Structure from motion (SfM)

106

Supply chain DT

7

Support vector machine (SVM) algorithm

176, 180

SUS

. See System Usability Scale

System architecture

145–151

System Usability Scale (SUS)

71–73

Taunay, Afonso d'Escragnolle

225

TCP/IP

. See transmission control protocol/internet protocol

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) systems

104

Tessellated Surface Representation (TSR)

113–114

Thermography

137

Three-dimensional (3D) digital survey techniques

219

Transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)

69

Transportation infrastructure

251

Trimble RealWorks

222, 229

“TwinSim” project

191, 196

UAVs

. See unmanned aerial vehicles

UE

. See Unreal Engine

UE APIs

209

UGVs

. See unmanned ground vehicles

United States

251

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)

105

Unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs)

105

Unreal Engine (UE)

209–210

Videogrammetry

. See photogrammetry

Virtual facility O&M dashboard

10

Virtual modeling platform (VMP)

146

Virtual reality (VR)-based DT model for worker health monitoring

64–74

development

65–66

digital twin development

68–70

robot teleoperation in unity

69–70

VR–based human–robot teaming interface

69

near-real-time cognitive load assessment

68

overview

64–67

results/discussion

72–73

signal processing and classifier training

67–68

system performance assessment

70–71

Virtual space

142

VMP

. See virtual modeling platform

Weihai Port, DT for (case study)

197–215

background of

197–199

business data environment

210–211

client services module

213–214

data availability

203–205

data requirements

205

developed DT modules

211

lesson learned

data availability

214–215

data management and applications

215

DT stakeholders and their requirements

214

port data requirements

214–215

multilayered digital twin architecture

205–209

production scheduling module

211–213

requirement analysis

202–203

requirement category framework development

199–201

requirement collection

201–202

safety and security module

213

supplying chain management module

213

virtual environment

209–210