Simulation-Based Optimization Model to Minimize Equivalent Annual Cost of Existing Buildings
Publication: Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Volume 148, Issue 2
Abstract
Building’s energy and water consumption and associated utility costs can be significantly reduced if proper energy and water-efficiency upgrades are applied. Due to the limitations of the upgrade budgets and the availability of a wide range of energy and water-efficiency measures, decision makers are always faced with a challenging task to identify optimal sets of building upgrade measures. This paper presents the development of a new model that is capable of identifying an optimum selection of building upgrade measures to minimize equivalent annual cost (EAC) while maintaining the performance of existing buildings and complying with available upgrade budgets. The model is developed in three main phases: (1) formulation phase, where decision variables, objective function, and constraints are identified and formulated; (2) implementation phase that performs the model computations and specifies the model input and output data; and (3) performance evaluation phase where two case studies of university buildings are analyzed to demonstrate the capabilities of the model. Furthermore, a case study from the literature is used to verify the model performance and document its new capabilities. The primary contributions that this research adds to the body of knowledge are: (1) developing new model that can identify optimal selection of building upgrades while complying with user-specified requirements for building operational performance and available upgrade budgets in short computation time, (2) modeling a wide range of upgrade measures for building fixtures and equipment as well as envelope components, and (3) integrating updatable databases from vendors and suppliers to generate up-to-date and practical recommendations. The model is designed to use OpenStudio to analyze combinations of feasible alternatives such as HVAC systems, wall and roof insulations, window types, and water heaters to calculate the corresponding building energy consumption. The model is designed to perform its computations using binary linear programming to identify global optimum solutions in short computational time. The results of the case studies illustrated the capabilities of the model in optimizing building upgrade measures to reduce the building utility costs up to 38% while complying with specified upgrade budgets.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abdallah, M., K. El-rayes, and C. Clevenger. 2015a. “Minimizing energy consumption and carbon emissions of aging buildings.” Procedia Eng. 118 (Sep): 886–893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.527.
Abdallah, M., K. El-Rayes, and C. Clevenger. 2015b. “Optimizing building upgrades to minimize energy and water consumption.” In Proc., 8th Int. Structural Engineering and Construction Conf.: Implementing Innovative Ideas in Structural Engineering and Project Management: ISEC 2015. Fargo, ND: ISEC Press.
Abdallah, M., K. El-Rayes, and L. Liu. 2013. “Operational performance of sustainable measures in public buildings.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage. 139 (12): A4013008. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000770.
Abdallah, M., K. El-Rayes, and L. Liu. 2014. “Optimal selection of sustainability measures to minimize building operational costs.” In Proc., Construction Research Congress 2014, 2205–2213. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Abdallah, M., K. El-Rayes, and L. Liu. 2016a. “Economic and GHG emission analysis of implementing sustainable measures in existing public buildings.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 30 (6): 04016055. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000911.
Abdallah, M., K. El-Rayes, and L. Liu. 2016b. “Optimizing the selection of sustainability measures to minimize life-cycle cost of existing buildings.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 43 (2): 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2015-0179.
Ahn, B. L., C. Y. Jang, S. B. Leigh, S. Yoo, and H. Jeong. 2014. “Effect of LED lighting on the cooling and heating loads in office buildings.” Appl. Energy 113 (2014): 1484–1489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.08.050.
Amini Toosi, H., M. Lavagna, F. Leonforte, C. Del Pero, and N. Aste. 2020. “Life cycle sustainability assessment in building energy retrofitting: A review.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 60 (May): 102248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102248.
Arpke, A., and N. Hutzler. 2005. “Operational life-cycle assessment and life-cycle cost analysis for water use in multioccupant buildings.” J. Archit. Eng. 11 (3): 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2005)11:3(99).
Asadi, E., M. G. da Silva, C. H. Antunes, L. Dias, and L. Glicksman. 2014. “Multi-objective optimization for building retrofit: A model using genetic algorithm and artificial neural network and an application.” Energy Build. 81 (Oct): 444–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.06.009.
Ascione, F., N. Bianco, T. Iovane, G. M. Mauro, D. F. Napolitano, A. Ruggiano, and L. Viscido. 2020. “A real industrial building: Modeling, calibration and Pareto optimization of energy retrofit.” J. Build. Eng. 29 (May): 101186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101186.
Ascione, F., N. Bianco, G. M. Mauro, and D. F. Napolitano. 2019. “Retrofit of villas on Mediterranean coastlines: Pareto optimization with a view to energy-efficiency and cost-effectiveness.” Appl. Energy 254 (Nov): 113705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113705.
AWWA (American Water Works Association). 2019. 2019 water and wastewater rate survey. Denver: AWWA.
Baldoni, E., S. Coderoni, M. D’Orazio, E. Di Giuseppe, and R. Esposti. 2019. “The role of economic and policy variables in energy-efficient retrofitting assessment. A stochastic life cycle costing methodology.” Energy Policy 129 (Jun): 1207–1219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.03.018.
Bertone, E., R. A. Stewart, O. Sahin, M. Alam, P. X. W. Zou, C. Buntine, and C. Marshall. 2018. “Guidelines, barriers and strategies for energy and water retrofits of public buildings.” J. Cleaner Prod. 174 (Feb): 1064–1078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.065.
Byun, J., I. Hong, B. Lee, and S. Park. 2013. “Intelligent household LED lighting system considering energy efficiency and user satisfaction.” IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron. 59 (1): 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCE.2013.6490243.
Cahill, R., J. R. Lund, B. Deoreo, and J. Medellín-Azuara. 2013. “Household water use and conservation models using Monte Carlo techniques.” Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 17 (10): 3957–3967. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-3957-2013.
Carlsson, M., M. Touchie, and R. Richman. 2019. “Investigating the potential impact of a compartmentalization and ventilation system retrofit strategy on energy use in high-rise residential buildings.” Energy Build. 199 (Sep): 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.06.035.
Delgarm, N., B. Sajadi, F. Kowsary, and S. Delgarm. 2016. “Multi-objective optimization of the building energy performance: A simulation-based approach by means of particle swarm optimization (PSO).” Appl. Energy 170 (May): 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.02.141.
EIA (Energy Information Administration). 2020. Annual energy outlook 2020. Washington, DC: EIA.
Englart, S., and A. Jedlikowski. 2019. “The influence of different water efficiency ratings of taps and mixers on energy and water consumption in buildings.” SN Appl. Sci. 1 (6): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0539-8.
Escriva-Bou, A., J. R. Lund, and M. Pulido-Velazquez. 2015. “Modeling residential water and related energy, carbon footprint and costs in California.” Environ. Sci. Policy 50 (Jun): 270–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.03.005.
Evin, D., and A. Ucar. 2019. “Energy impact and eco-efficiency of the envelope insulation in residential buildings in Turkey.” Appl. Therm. Eng. 154 (May): 573–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.03.102.
Evins, R. 2013. “A review of computational optimisation methods applied to sustainable building design.” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 22 (Jun): 230–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.02.004.
Fantucci, S., and V. Serra. 2019. “Energy & Buildings Investigating the performance of reflective insulation and low emissivity paints for the energy retrofit of roof attics.” Energy Build. 182 (Jan): 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.10.003.
Fazel, A., A. Izadi, and M. Azizi. 2016. “ScienceDirect Low-cost solar thermal based adaptive window : Combination of energy-saving and self-adjustment in buildings.” Sol. Energy 133 (Aug): 274–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.04.008.
Fidar, A., F. A. Memon, and D. Butler. 2010. “Environmental implications of water efficient microcomponents in residential buildings.” Sci. Total Environ. 408 (23): 5828–5835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.08.006.
Goia, F. 2016. “ScienceDirect Search for the optimal window-to-wall ratio in office buildings in different European climates and the implications on total energy saving potential.” Sol. Energy 132 (Jul): 467–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.03.031.
Guardigli, L., M. A. Bragadin, F. Della Fornace, C. Mazzoli, and D. Prati. 2018. “Energy retrofit alternatives and cost-optimal analysis for large public housing stocks.” Energy Build. 166 (May): 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.02.003.
Gugliermetti, F., and F. Bisegna. 2007. “Saving energy in residential buildings: The use of fully reversible windows.” Energy 32 (7): 1235–1247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.08.004.
Gustafsson, M. S., J. A. Myhren, E. Dotzauer, and M. Gustafsson. 2019. “Life cycle cost of building energy renovation measures, considering future energy production scenarios.” Energies 12 (14): 2719. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12142719.
Harvey, L. D. D. 2013. “Recent advances in sustainable buildings: Review of the energy and cost performance of the state-of-the-art best practices from around the world.” Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 38 (Aug): 281–309. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-070312-101940.
Hashempour, N., R. Taherkhani, and M. Mahdikhani. 2020. “Energy performance optimization of existing buildings: A literature review.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 54 (Mar): 101967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101967.
Holmes, C., and S. Mullen-Trento. 2017. State level electric energy efficiency potential estimates. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute.
Huang, H., Y. Zhou, R. Huang, H. Wu, Y. Sun, and G. Huang. 2020. “Optimum insulation thicknesses and energy conservation of building thermal insulation materials in Chinese zone of humid subtropical climate.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 52 (Jan): 101840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101840.
Jafari, A., and V. Valentin. 2017. “An optimization framework for building energy retrofits decision-making.” Build. Environ. 115 (Apr): 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.01.020.
Jie, P., F. Yan, J. Li, Y. Zhang, and Z. Wen. 2019. “Optimizing the insulation thickness of walls of existing buildings with CHP-based district heating systems.” Energy 189 (Dec): 116262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116262.
Jie, P., F. Zhang, Z. Fang, H. Wang, and Y. Zhao. 2018. “Optimizing the insulation thickness of walls and roofs of existing buildings based on primary energy consumption, global cost and pollutant emissions.” Energy 159 (Sep): 1132–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.06.179.
Juanicó, L. E. 2020. “Thermal insulation of roofs by using multiple air gaps separated by insulating layers of low infrared emissivity.” Constr. Build. Mater. 230 (Jan): 116931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.116931.
Karaguzel, O. T., R. Zhang, and K. P. Lam. 2014. “Coupling of whole-building energy simulation and multi-dimensional numerical optimization for minimizing the life cycle costs of office buildings.” Build. Simul. 7 (2): 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-013-0128-5.
Kenway, S. J., R. Scheidegger, T. A. Larsen, P. Lant, and H. P. Bader. 2013. “Water-related energy in households: A model designed to understand the current state and simulate possible measures.” Energy Build. 58 (Mar): 378–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.08.035.
Kumar, N. M., and M. Mathew. 2018. “Comparative life-cycle cost and GHG emission analysis of five different water heating systems for residential buildings in Australia.” Beni-Suef Univ. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 7 (4): 748–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjbas.2018.11.001.
Lim, H., and Z. J. Zhai. 2017. “Review on stochastic modeling methods for building stock energy prediction.” Build. Simul. 10 (5): 607–624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-017-0383-y.
Litti, G., A. Audenaert, and M. Lavagna. 2020. “Life cycle operating energy saving from windows retro fitting in heritage buildings accounting for technical performance decay.” J. Build. Eng. 17 (May): 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.02.006.
Liu, Y., T. Liu, S. Ye, and Y. Liu. 2018. “Cost-benefit analysis for energy efficiency retrofit of existing buildings: A case study in China.” J. Cleaner Prod. 177 (Mar): 493–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.225.
Mangan, S. D., and G. K. Oral. 2015. “A study on life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for residential buildings in Turkey.” Energy Procedia 78 (Nov): 842–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.005.
Mariano-Hernández, D., L. Hernández-Callejo, A. Zorita-Lamadrid, O. Duque-Pérez, and F. Santos García. 2021. “A review of strategies for building energy management system: Model predictive control, demand side management, optimization, and fault detect & diagnosis.” J. Build. Eng. 33 (Jan): 101692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101692.
Moschetti, R., and H. Brattebø. 2017. “Combining life cycle environmental and economic assessments in building energy renovation projects.” Energies 10 (11): 1851. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10111851.
Mostavi, E., S. Asadi, and D. Boussaa. 2017. “Development of a new methodology to optimize building life cycle cost, environmental impacts, and occupant satisfaction.” Energy 121 (Feb): 606–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.01.049.
NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory). 2014. “Parametric analysis tool (PAT) interface guide.” Accessed February 11, 2021. https://nrel.github.io/OpenStudio-user-documentation/reference/parametric_analysis_tool_2/.
NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory). 2020a. “The national solar radiation database (NSRDB).” Accessed October 9, 2020. https://nsrdb.nrel.gov/.
NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory). 2020b. “OpenStudio.” Accessed May 19, 2021. https://www.openstudio.net/.
Parker, A., K. Benne, L. Brackney, E. Hale, D. Macumber, and M. Schott. 2014. “A parametric analysis tool for building energy design workflows: Application to a utility design assistance incentive program.” In 2014 ACEEE summer study on energy efficiency in buildings, 263–274. Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.
PNNL (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory). 2011. Advanced energy retrofit guide. Richland, WA: DOE and PNNL.
Pombo, O., K. Allacker, B. Rivela, and J. Neila. 2016. “Sustainability assessment of energy saving measures: A multi-criteria approach for residential buildings retrofitting—A case study of the Spanish housing stock.” Energy Build. 116 (Mar): 384–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.019.
Qiu, T., G. Wang, Q. Xu, and G. Ni. 2018. “Study on the thermal performance and design method of solar reflective—Thermal insulation hybrid system for wall and roof in Shanghai.” Sol. Energy 171 (Sep): 851–862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.07.036.
Rabani, M., H. Bayera Madessa, O. Mohseni, and N. Nord. 2020. “Minimizing delivered energy and life cycle cost using Graphical script: An office building retrofitting case.” Appl. Energy 268 (Jun): 114929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.114929.
Ran, J., and M. Tang. 2018. “Passive cooling of the green roofs combined with night-time ventilation and walls insulation in hot and humid regions.” Sustainable Cities Soc. 38 (Apr): 466–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.01.027.
Ran, J., M. Tang, L. Jiang, and X. Zheng. 2017. “Effect of building roof insulation measures on indoor cooling and energy saving in rural areas in Chongqing.” Procedia Eng. 180 (May): 669–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.226.
Rodrigues, F., A. Silva-Afonso, A. Pinto, J. Macedo, A. S. Santos, and C. Pimentel-Rodrigues. 2020. “Increasing water and energy efficiency in university buildings: A case study.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27 (5): 4571–4581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04990-w.
Rosso, F., V. Ciancio, J. Dell’Olmo, and F. Salata. 2020. “Multi-objective optimization of building retrofit in the Mediterranean climate by means of genetic algorithm application.” Energy Build. 216 (Jun): 109945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.109945.
RSMeans. 2020. 2020 building construction costs book, edited by P. R. Waier. Rockland, MA: RSMeans.
Sanhudo, L., N. M. M. Ramos, J. Poças Martins, R. M. S. F. Almeida, E. Barreira, M. L. Simões, and V. Cardoso. 2018. “Building information modeling for energy retrofitting: A review.” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 89 (Jun): 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.064.
Sharif, S. A., and A. Hammad. 2019. “Simulation-based multi-objective optimization of institutional building renovation considering energy consumption, life-cycle cost and life-cycle assessment.” J. Build. Eng. 21 (Jan): 429–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.11.006.
Silva-Afonso, A., and C. Pimentel-Rodrigues. 2013. “Water-energy nexus. The outcome of the implementation of water efficiency measures in buildings.” In Proc., 7th IWA Specialist Conf. on Efficient Use and Management of Water: Water Efficiency Strategies for Difficult Times. London: IInternational Water Association.
Silva-Afonso, A., F. Rodrigues, and C. Pimentel-Rodrigues. 2011. “Water efficiency in buildings: Assessment of its impact on energy efficiency and reducing GHG emissions.” In Proc., 6th IASME/WSEAS Int. Conf. on Energy and Environment, EE’11: Recent Researches in Energy and Environment, 191–195. Maharashtra, India: International Association of Mechanical Engineers.
Sofos, M., et al. 2020. Innovations in sensors and controls for building energy management: Research and development opportunities report for emerging technologies. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Lab.
Somasundaram, S., S. R. Thangavelu, and A. Chong. 2020. “Improving building efficiency using low-e coating based retrofit double glazing with solar films.” Appl. Therm. Eng. 171 (May): 115064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115064.
Sorrell, S., J. Schleich, S. Scott, E. O’Malley, F. Trace, E. Boede, K. Ostertag, and P. Radgen. 2000. Reducing barriers to energy efficiency in public and private organisations. Brighton, UK: Univ. of Sussex.
Streicher, K. N., S. Mennel, J. Chambers, D. Parra, and M. K. Patel. 2020. “Cost-effectiveness of large-scale deep energy retrofit packages for residential buildings under different economic assessment approaches.” Energy Build. 215 (May): 109870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.109870.
Tällberg, R., B. Petter, R. Loonen, T. Gao, and M. Hamdy. 2019. “Solar energy materials and solar cells comparison of the energy saving potential of adaptive and controllable smart windows: A state-of-the-art review and simulation studies of thermochromic, photochromic and electrochromic technologies.” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 200 (Jun): 109828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2019.02.041.
Tian, Z., B. Si, X. Shi, and Z. Fang. 2019. “An application of Bayesian Network approach for selecting energy efficient HVAC systems.” J. Build. Eng. 25 (May): 100796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100796.
Trianni, A., and E. Cagno. 2012. “Dealing with barriers to energy efficiency and SMEs: Some empirical evidences.” Energy 37 (1): 494–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.11.005.
USGBC (US Green Building Council). 2018. LEED v4 for building operation and maintenance. Washington, DC: USGBC.
Vilches, A., A. Garcia-Martinez, and B. Sanchez-Montañes. 2017. “Life cycle assessment (LCA) of building refurbishment: A literature review.” Energy Build. 135 (Jan): 286–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.11.042.
Wang, B., X. Xia, and J. Zhang. 2014. “A multi-objective optimization model for the life-cycle cost analysis and retrofitting planning of buildings.” Energy Build. 77 (Jul): 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.03.025.
Xue, P., Q. Li, J. Xie, M. Zhao, and J. Liu. 2019. “Optimization of window-to-wall ratio with sunshades in China low latitude region considering daylighting and energy saving requirements.” Appl. Energy 233–234 (Jan): 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.027.
Ye, H., L. Long, H. Zhang, and Y. Gao. 2014. “The energy saving index and the performance evaluation of thermochromic windows in passive buildings.” Renewable Energy 66 (Jun): 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.008.
Yuan, J., V. Nian, and B. Su. 2019. “Evaluation of cost-effective building retrofit strategies through soft-linking a metamodel-based Bayesian method and a life cycle cost assessment method.” Appl. Energy 253 (Nov): 113573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113573.
Zheng, D., L. Yu, and L. Wang. 2019a. “Research on large-scale building energy efficiency retrofit based on energy consumption investigation and energy-saving potential analysis.” J. Energy Eng. 145 (6): 04019024. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EY.1943-7897.0000618.
Zheng, D., L. Yu, L. Wang, and J. Tao. 2019b. “A screening methodology for building multiple energy retrofit measures package considering economic and risk aspects.” J. Cleaner Prod. 208 (Jan): 1587–1602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.196.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Volume 148 • Issue 2 • February 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Oct 22, 2020
Accepted: Oct 13, 2021
Published online: Dec 10, 2021
Published in print: Feb 1, 2022
Discussion open until: May 10, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Mahdi Ghafoori, Moatassem Abdallah, Innovative Optimization Model for Planning Upgrade and Maintenance Interventions for Buildings, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001757, 36, 6, (2022).